Alan M. Beck

Future Directions in Human-Animal Bond Research

Human-animal contact can influence psychological and physiological parameters important to health and welfare; nevertheless, there has been relatively little research on the variables that influence or mediate those health consequences. In addition, little attention has been paid on how to create or alter the animal interactions for the betterment of people and their animals. The investigation can be guided by two theoretical perspectives, which make powerful but different and testable predictions: the biophilia hypothesis and social support theory. Along with this theoretically driven research, there is a need for replication of salient research findings to resolve important discrepancies in the literature. Last, animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has to be placed in the context of alternative therapies now available to define its specificity, risks, and overall benefits.

Animal-assisted therapy and Nutrition in Alzheimer's disease.

This study examined the influence of animal-assisted therapy, specifically fish aquariums, on nutritional intake in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Sixty-two individuals with AD who lived in specialized units were studied. Baseline nutritional data were obtained followed by a 2-week treatment period when the aquariums were introduced. The treatment data were collected daily for 2 weeks then weekly for 6 weeks. Nutritional intake increased significantly (21.1%; p < .001) when the aquariums were introduced and continued to increase during the 6-week weekly follow-up. Weight increased significantly(1.65 lbs; p < .001) over the 16-week period. In addition, participants required less nutritional supplementation, resulting in health care cost savings.

Comparison of Contemplation and Hypnosis for the Reduction of Anxiety and Discomfort during Dental Surgery

Abstract Complex moving visual stimuli are used to induce states of relaxation, hypnosis and revery. To test the efficacy of using aquarium contemplation to induce relaxation, 42 patients were randomly assigned to one of five treatments prior to elective oral surgery: 1) contemplation of an aquarium, 2) contemplation of a poster, 3) poster contemplation with hypnotic induction, 4) aquarium contemplation with hypnosis, and 5), a non intervention control. Blood pressure, heart rate, and subjective and objective measures of anxiety were used as dependent measures. Pretreatment with aquarium contemplation and hypnosis, either alone or in combination, produced significantly greater degrees of relaxation during surgery than poster contemplation or the control procedure. Two-way analysis of variance demonstrated that a formal hypnotic induction did not augment the relaxation produced by aquarium contemplation.

Use of Animals in the Rehabilitation of Psychiatric Inpatients

This study compared the impact of therapy and activity groups on two matched groups of 8 and 9 psychiatric inpatients. Daily sessions of the groups were held for 11 wk. in identical rooms except for the presence of caged finches in one of the rooms. The patients were evaluated before and after the sessions using standard psychiatric rating scales. The group who met in the room that contained animals (a cage with four finches) had significantly better attendance and participation and significantly improved in areas assessed by the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Other positive trends indicated that the study should be replicated with larger samples and modified to increase interactions with the animals.

Social Behaviors Increase in Children with Autism in the Presence of Animals Compared to Toys

Background Previous research has demonstrated the capacity of animal presence to stimulate social interaction among humans. The purpose of this study was to examine the interactions of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with an adult and their typically-developing peers in the presence of animals (two guinea pigs) compared to toys. Methods Ninety-nine children from 15 classrooms in 4 schools met the inclusion criteria and participated in groups of three (1 child with ASD and 2 typically-developing peers). Each group was video-recorded during three 10-minute, free-play sessions with toys and three 10-minute, free-play sessions with two guinea pigs. Two blinded observers coded the behavior of children with ASD and their peers. To account for the nested study design, data were analyzed using hierarchical generalized linear modeling. Results Participants with ASD demonstrated more social approach behaviors (including talking, looking at faces, and making tactile contact) and received more social approaches from their peers in the presence of animals compared to toys. They also displayed more prosocial behaviors and positive affect (i.e., smiling and laughing) as well as less self-focused behaviors and negative affect (i.e., frowning, crying, and whining) in the presence of animals compared to toys. Conclusions These results suggest that the presence of an animal can significantly increase positive social behaviors among children with ASD.

The Effects of Spring Burning on Rodent Populations in a Brush Prairie Savanna

Small mammals were collected on six study areas, three of which had been burned (two, four, and 11 times) during the past 15 years and three of which had not been burned for 35 years. Each area was equally productive but the species composition varied, indicating a specific preference for either the brush prairie savanna (created and maintained by burning) or the oak forest (resulting from lack of fire). Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis and Clethrionomys gapperi gapperi were common in the unburned forest, and Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii and Spermophilus tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus responded to the prairie created by burning. Burning of the forest did not significantly reduce the numbers of rodents present.

Behavior and ecology of a small group of urban dogs (Canis familiaris)

Abstract A group of three feral dogs (two males, one female) living in vacant buildings in St. Louis City was studied. They avoided close proximity with people and were active earlier and later in the day than the people and loose pets in the area. They found food while scavenging through human trash. The groups activities were usually initiated by the female of the group though otherwise there was no clear linear hierarchy and few ritualized displays of dominance or greeting. Specific “roles” within the group were observable. Though the female appeared to be pregnant during the study, puppies were never noted.

The Use of Animals to Benefit Humans: Animal-Assisted Therapy

Publisher Summary Animals have generally played a great role in human ecological adjustment. From the very beginning, animal-facilitated therapy (AFT) has paralleled the use of animals as pets, and many of the therapeutic uses are extensions of the health benefits now recognized for those who own or interact with companion animals. These included the early observations that people interacting with animals experienced a decrease in blood pressure to the more overt behaviors indicating a more relaxed state. There is now general acceptance that animals are therapeutic, and natural surroundings and contact with nature is good for people. Viewing nature in general has therapeutic value. Studies are beginning to look at the behavior and physiological indicators of relaxation in animals as they interact with people. It is known that most domestic animals actively try to be with people, presumably for the same reasons humans want to be with them—the comfort of the family, group, or pack. Remember that one requirement of the new Animal Welfare Act for research dogs is that the dogs have access to exercise and socialization, with people—human-facilitated therapy for institutionalized dogs. Reconciling the risks to the animals with their rehabilitation value is neither simple nor easy unless one follows the dictum that animals absolutely should not be used as means to an end. After a therapeutic session has ended, all involved—the recipient of the service, the therapist, and the animal—must have benefited from the experience. In this way, all society will benefit.Publisher Summary Animals have generally played a great role in human ecological adjustment. From the very beginning, animal-facilitated therapy (AFT) has paralleled the use of animals as pets, and many of the therapeutic uses are extensions of the health benefits now recognized for those who own or interact with companion animals. These included the early observations that people interacting with animals experienced a decrease in blood pressure to the more overt behaviors indicating a more relaxed state. There is now general acceptance that animals are therapeutic, and natural surroundings and contact with nature is good for people. Viewing nature in general has therapeutic value. Studies are beginning to look at the behavior and physiological indicators of relaxation in animals as they interact with people. It is known that most domestic animals actively try to be with people, presumably for the same reasons humans want to be with them—the comfort of the family, group, or pack. Remember that one requirement of the new Animal Welfare Act for research dogs is that the dogs have access to exercise and socialization, with people—human-facilitated therapy for institutionalized dogs. Reconciling the risks to the animals with their rehabilitation value is neither simple nor easy unless one follows the dictum that animals absolutely should not be used as means to an end. After a therapeutic session has ended, all involved—the recipient of the service, the therapist, and the animal—must have benefited from the experience. In this way, all society will benefit.

Understanding our kinship with animals: input for health care professionals interested in the human/animal bond

Abstract This introductory chapter provides readers with a basic foundation not only to appreciate and understand this unique kinship with all living creatures but also to discover the roots to the overwhelming growing interest in animal-assisted intervention. The chapter should also help solidify and clarify how the benefits witnessed within this unique bond have prompted numerous professionals to become more curious about the advantages of animal-assisted interventions.

Evaluation of a Pet Program in Prison—The Pal Project at Lorton

AbstractWe studied a program that permitted a selected number of prisoners to keep pets. We observed the physiological and behavioral effects of this contact and retrospectively examined the effect of pet possession on the frequency and severity of disciplinary offenses. The presence of a pet did not affect the rise in blood pressure associated with talking to the experimenters. However, blood pressure during interaction with the pet was always lower than blood pressure during conversation with the experimenters. Pet ownership had a small effect on the number but not the severity of disciplinary offenses. We concluded that this pet program provided valuable recreation for prisoners but had only small and inconsistent effects on antisocial behavior as defined by the prison staff.