Gail F. Melson

Availability of and Involvement with Pets by Children: Determinants and Correlates

AbstractDeterminants of pet ownership and involvement with pets by children from preschool age to preadolescence were assessed from reports of 707 parents. The relationship between pet ownership and involvement with pets and involvement in leisure and work activities by children was also examined. Child age and maternal employment were the most important predictors of both pet ownership and involvement with pets. As predicted, the availability of a pet was unrelated to childrens work and leisure pursuits, but the extent of involvement with a pet was associated positively with other non-school activities, especially for second and fifth graders.

Studying Children's Attachment to their Pets: A Conceptual and Methodological Review

AbstractFour dimensions of attachment are distinguished, based on the psychological literature on childrens attachments to others: (1) time with and activities directed toward the attachment object; (2) interest in and affect expressed toward the attachment object; (3) knowledge about the attachment object; and (4) behavioral responsiveness to the attachment object. Considering pets as attachment objects, research bearing on each of these dimensions is reviewed, with particular attention to methodological issues. Future directions for research on each dimension are noted.

Parental Perceptions of Their Children's Involvement with Household Pets: A Test of a Specificity Model of Nurturance

ABSTRACTTo test hypotheses derived from a specificity model of the development of childrens nurturance, parents of preschool, second-grade and fifth-grade children (n=707) reported the frequency of their childrens play with and care of pets as well as play and care directed to younger siblings, non-family babies, and elderly persons. Parents also reported on their childrens frequency of expressed interest in animals, babies, and nurture in general. As predicted, gender differences were found for frequency of time spent with babies but not with pets. Frequency of time with pets was related to expressed interest in animals but not in babies. Children who had pets but no younger siblings were reported to spend more time with pets than were children with both pets and younger siblings. Children without pets were reported to express interest in babies more often than did pet owning children.

Mothers’ and Their Adult Daughters’ Perceptions of Their Relationship

This qualitative study explores mother—adult daughter relationships through in-depth, individual interviews with 24 adult daughters and their mothers (N = 48). Using a life-course perspective, the authors examined the kinds of themes that emerged in each woman’s narrative and within each mother— daughter pair. Given the periods of adulthood under study, the authors expected and found themes reflecting complexity and ambivalence within the relationships. Themes related to intimacy and positive relationship qualities included generational continuity, closeness, emotional support, and family norms/values. Themes indicating autonomy and relationship difficulties— generational change, conflict, secrets, and maternal pressures—were also identified. Generational differences, as well as within-dyad divergence, were found most often in narratives about autonomy and relationship difficulties. The majority of mothers and daughters reevaluated their past relationship in light of their present ties. The place of narratives about adult family relationships in understanding the life course is emphasized.

The Educational Benefits of a Ten-Week Home-Based Wild Bird Feeding Program for Children

ABSTRACT This study evaluated a ten-week educational home-based program for feeding wild birds, intended to increase elementary school age childrens knowledge about birds, especially those wild birds commonly encountered at outdoor home feeders. We measured changes from pre- to post-program in 65 seven- to 12-year old childrens knowledge about wild birds, as well as in environmental attitudes. The goal was not only to increase bird knowledge in the target child but also to involve other family members in home-based nature education activities. After the program, seven- to nine-year old boys and girls showed significant gains in bird knowledge, but older children (10–12 years) did not significantly improve. Childrens increased knowledge was positively associated with parental education. There was no systematic change in environmental attitudes. Parents identified family involvement as a particularly beneficial aspect of the program, and 90% of contacted families were still feeding birds one year after program termination.

Companion animals and the development of children: implications of the biophilia hypothesis

Publisher Summary This chapter explores the implications of the biophilia hypothesis for understanding the role of animals in childrens development. Biophilia suggests that animal contact has the potential, if not the power, to promote a childs feelings of safety and security. Also, biophilia calls attention to animals as perceptually and cognitively salient categories. This implies that animals may be effective stimuli for many children in drawing and sustaining their attention, encoding memories, and linguistically organizing thoughts. Furthermore, biophilia hypothesizes that interest in animals leads children to speculate about animal minds as well as human minds as they develop theory of mind ideas. Such speculation draws children into the challenge of decoding distinctive (from human) repertoires of behaviors and may make children more nonverbally literate. An important implication of biophilia is that children are intrinsically interested in animals, but not intrinsically attracted or attached to them. Thus, in this view, children bring heightened affect to encounters with animals, but this affect is readily channeled into either positive or negative directions.

Sex Differences in Use of Indoor Space by Preschool Children

Indoor spatial movements, activity choices, social interaction, and motoric behavior in play were observed in a sample of 34 4-yr.-old children. No sex differences in amount or rate of use of space were obtained. However, sex differences in preferences for activity, patterns of social interaction, and motoric behavior within activity areas indicated that girls distributed their attention among social and nonsocial stimuli more evenly than did boys. Support for the energizing effect of play with other boys was also obtained.

Sex differences in proxemic behavior and personal space schemata in young children

Spatial preferences with feltboard figures, observed interpersonal distance, and sex-role identification were examined in 80 preschool children. On the feltboard measure, 4- to 5-year-olds chose generally greater interpersonal distance than younger children. Sex of stimulus figure also influenced older childrens distance choices. When same-sex pair play was videotaped, older boys spent significantly more time at far distances and less time at close distances than younger boys. A positive correlation between sex-role identification, measured by the Rabban toy choice task, and feltboard figure distance was obtained for older boys only. Findings supported the notion that sex-related interpersonal spatial norms may be learned during the preschool years, particularly by boys.

Determinants of personal space in young children: perception of distance cues.

Two methods of assessing personal space in young children were examined in a group of 24 boys and 24 girls, aged 3 to 6 yr. When sex of peer figures and affect attributed to them were varied, 3-yr.-olds made distance-cue judgments based on affect but failed to use affect cues in structuring personal space. However, 4- to 6-yr.-olds readily perceived and used distance to communicate the affective quality of peer relations. On both measures, perception of distance cues increased with age. Only girls also used sex of figures as a social cue in depicting appropriate distances.

Chapter 13 – Animals in the Lives of Children

Publisher Summary All therapeutic interventions involving animals rest on a powerful assumption: there is something about animals that powerfully attracts and motivates humans. This assumption seems particularly compelling when children are involved. This chapter examines the assumption closely and documents the pervasiveness of animals, both real and symbolic, in childrens lives. It draws on four conceptual approaches—psychodynamic, relational and self-psychologies, ecological psychology and the biophilia hypothesis—and considers how existing research might support and also challenges hypotheses drawn from these approaches. Although the empirical base of human/animal interaction (HAI) studies continues to grow, there remain many gaps in knowledge. A review of research on HAI and childrens development still raises more questions than provides answers. Scholars have considered theory and research on the possible role of animals in childrens lives: nurturance and caring for others, including empathy; coping with stress; emotion regulation, self-control and positive adjustment; reduction of maladaptive outcomes, such as conduct disorder symptoms; theory of mind; social support; and physical activity, among other outcomes. Diverse theoretical frameworks provide conceptual underpinning for AAT with children and their families. These frameworks see animals as freeing up repressed thoughts and feelings, providing an affirming and supportive relationship, reflecting the dynamics of the family system, and focusing and calming the child and family in the therapeutic context.