Alberto Garrido

Evaluation of Spain's Water-Energy Nexus

This paper explores the water-energy nexus of Spain and offers calculations for both the energy used in the water sector and the water required to run the energy sector. The article takes a prospective approach, offering evaluations of policy objectives for biofuels and expected renewable energy sources. Approximately 5.8% of total electricity demand in Spain is due to the water sector. Irrigated agriculture is one of the Spanish water sectors that show the largest growth in energy requirements. Searches for more efficient modes of farm water use, urban waste water treatment, and the use of desalinated water must henceforth include the energy component. Furthermore, biofuel production, to the levels targeted for 2020, would have an unbearable impact on the already stressed water resources in Spain. However, growing usage of renewable energy sources is not threatened by water scarcity, but legislative measures in water allocation and water markets will be required to meet the requirements of using these sources. Some of these measures, which are pushed by regional governments, are discussed in concluding sections.

A mathematical programming model applied to the study of water markets within the Spanish agricultural sector

Spanish irrigated agriculture uses about 80% of all the nations available water resources. The need to increase the economic efficiency of current uses of water in the agricultural sector is perceived as the top priority of the countrys national water policy. In Spain surface water is centrally allocated among competing users based on allocation criteria dictated by the Water Law. The complete absence of price or market signals is a major obstacle to induce irrigators to use water more efficiently. Water markets within the agricultural sector is a promising, though scarcely analyzed in Spain, solution to increase its economic efficiency. This research is an attempt to evaluate probable water transfers among farmers and irrigation districts as well as water price equilibria resulting from different water market arrangements. Three interconnected mathematical programming models permit the simulation of water use at the farm level and water market arrangements in the Guadalquivir Valley (Spain). Results show that water markets would be highly dependent on the level of transaction costs and on the relative reductions of water allotments due to non‐overlapping drought cycles among water districts.

A new basal rebbachisaurid (Sauropoda, Diplodocoidea) from the Early Cretaceous of the Neuquén Basin; evolution and biogeography of the group

Despite that the origin of rebbachisaurids is retrieved as Late Jurassic is not until the upper Lower Cretaceous that this group can be recognised in the fossil record. The group is geographically restricted to Gondwana and Europe, and is particularly diverse in the lower Upper Cretaceous of South America. In this subcontinent, Early Cretaceous forms are solely represented by Amazonsaurus and Zapalasaurus, being the former the putative basalmost rebbachisaurid known. Here, we provide a revised description of the sauropod from the Lohan Cura Formation (Aptian–Albian) that was previously identified as Limaysaurus sp. The new information available (mainly based on new elements) allows us to recognise a new taxon, Comahuesaurus windhauseni gen. et sp. nov. The phylogenetic analysis carried out retrieved this taxon as a relatively basal form of rebbachisaurid, well separated from Limaysaurinae. In this phylogenetic context, the new taxon revealed the presence of a reduced hyposphene–hypantrum system in rebbachisaurids more derived than Histriasaurus, which is completely lost only in Limaysaurinae. Finally, a biogeographical scenario for rebbachisaurids is analysed through the use of a Dispersal, Extinction and Cladogenesis analysis, which retrieves a South American origin for this linage, and a fast dispersion to Africa and Europe during the Hauterivian–Barremian.

A New Sauropodomorph Dinosaur from the Early Jurassic of Patagonia and the Origin and Evolution of the Sauropod-type Sacrum

Background The origin of sauropod dinosaurs is one of the major landmarks of dinosaur evolution but is still poorly understood. This drastic transformation involved major skeletal modifications, including a shift from the small and gracile condition of primitive sauropodomorphs to the gigantic and quadrupedal condition of sauropods. Recent findings in the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic of Gondwana provide critical evidence to understand the origin and early evolution of sauropods. Methodology/Principal Findings A new sauropodomorph dinosaur, Leonerasaurus taquetrensis gen. et sp. nov., is described from the Las Leoneras Formation of Central Patagonia (Argentina). The new taxon is diagnosed by the presence of anterior unserrated teeth with a low spoon-shaped crown, amphicoelous and acamerate vertebral centra, four sacral vertebrae, and humeral deltopectoral crest low and medially deflected along its distal half. The phylogenetic analysis depicts Leonerasaurus as one of the closest outgroups of Sauropoda, being the sister taxon of a clade of large bodied taxa composed of Melanorosaurus and Sauropoda. Conclusions/Significance The dental and postcranial anatomy of Leonerasaurus supports its close affinities with basal sauropods. Despite the small size and plesiomorphic skeletal anatomy of Leonerasaurus, the four vertebrae that compose its sacrum resemble that of the large-bodied primitive sauropods. This shows that the appearance of the sauropod-type of sacrum predated the marked increase in body size that characterizes the origins of sauropods, rejecting a causal explanation and evolutionary linkage between this sacral configuration and body size. Alternative phylogenetic placements of Leonerasaurus as a basal anchisaurian imply a convergent acquisition of the sauropod-type sacrum in the new small-bodied taxon, also rejecting an evolutionary dependence of sacral configuration and body size in sauropodomorphs. This and other recent discoveries are showing that the characteristic sauropod body plan evolved gradually, with a step-wise pattern of character appearance.

Economic Analysis of Water Markets in the Spanish Agricultural Sector: Can They Provide Substantial Benefits?

In normal years, Spain’s total rainfall that flows into rivers, lakes and aquifers amounts to 110,000 million m3. Substantial structural efforts to increase and stabilize supplies that date back to the Roman Empire domination of the Iberian peninsula, currently allow the control of about 40 percent of that volume of water (45,000 million m3). Until very recently, water policies were virtually limited to supplying water for residential consumption and the agricultural sector. Other objectives, such as streamflow benefits, were overridden by the need to meet those increasing demands. Presently, Spain devotes 80 percent of all available water to irrigate about 3.3 million hectares, and the remaining 20 percent to urban and industrial consumptive uses. Rainfall patterns across the country differ in such a magnitude that the northern basins get 18 times more water than the driest, southeastern basins. Moreover, the latter are the regions where irrigated agriculture produces the most valuable crops and where population demands for water during the tourist and driest season are two or three times larger than in winter.

Drivers influencing streamflow changes in the Upper Turia basin, Spain.

Many rivers across the world have experienced a significant streamflow reduction over the last decades. Drivers of the observed streamflow changes are multiple, including climate change (CC), land use and land cover changes (LULCC), water transfers and river impoundment. Many of these drivers inter-act simultaneously, making it difficult to discern the impact of each driver individually. In this study we isolate the effects of LULCC on the observed streamflow reduction in the Upper Turia basin (east Spain) during the period 1973-2008. Regression models of annual streamflow are fitted with climatic variables and also additional time variant drivers like LULCC. The ecohydrological model SWAT is used to study the magnitude and sign of streamflow change when LULCC occurs. Our results show that LULCC does play a significant role on the water balance, but it is not the main driver underpinning the observed reduction on Turias streamflow. Increasing mean temperature is the main factor supporting increasing evapotranspiration and streamflow reduction. In fact, LULCC and CC have had an offsetting effect on the streamflow generation during the study period. While streamflow has been negatively affected by increasing temperature, ongoing LULCC have positively compensated with reduced evapotranspiration rates, thanks to mainly shrubland clearing and forest degradation processes. These findings are valuable for the management of the Turia river basin, as well as a useful approach for the determination of the weight of LULCC on the hydrological response in other regions.

The role of Latin America's land and water resources for global food security: environmental trade-offs of future food production pathways.

One of humanity’s major challenges of the 21st century will be meeting future food demands on an increasingly resource constrained-planet. Global food production will have to rise by 70 percent between 2000 and 2050 to meet effective demand which poses major challenges to food production systems. Doing so without compromising environmental integrity is an even greater challenge. This study looks at the interdependencies between land and water resources, agricultural production and environmental outcomes in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), an area of growing importance in international agricultural markets. Special emphasis is given to the role of LAC’s agriculture for (a) global food security and (b) environmental sustainability. We use the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT)—a global dynamic partial equilibrium model of the agricultural sector—to run different future production scenarios, and agricultural trade regimes out to 2050, and assess changes in related environmental indicators. Results indicate that further trade liberalization is crucial for improving food security globally, but that it would also lead to more environmental pressures in some regions across Latin America. Contrasting land expansion versus more intensified agriculture shows that productivity improvements are generally superior to agricultural land expansion, from an economic and environmental point of view. Finally, our analysis shows that there are trade-offs between environmental and food security goals for all agricultural development paths.

Agricultural Water Pricing

This document, Agricultural Water Pricing: EU and Mexico, by Alberto Garrido of the Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, and Javier Calatrava, of the Universidad Politecnica de Cartagena, Spain, is one of the background reports supporting the OECD study (2010) Sustainable Management of Water Resources in Agriculture.

An Innovative Option Contract for Allocating Water in Inter-Basin Transfers: the Case of the Tagus-Segura Transfer in Spain

The Tagus-Segura Transfer (TST), the largest water infrastructure in Spain, connects the Tagus basin’s headwaters and the Segura basin, one of the most water-stressed areas in Europe. The need to increase the minimum environmental flows in the Tagus River and to meet new urban demands has lead to the redefinition of the TST’s management rules, what will cause a reduction of transferable volumes to the Segura basin. After evaluating the effects of this change in the whole Tagus-Segura system, focusing on the availability of irrigation water in the Segura, the environmental flows in the Tagus and the economic impacts on both basins; we propose an innovative two-tranche option contract that could reduce the negative impacts of the modification of the Transfer’s management rule, and represents an institutional innovation with respect to previous inter-basin water trading. We evaluate this contract with respect to spot and non-market scenarios. Results show that the proposed contract would reduce the impact of a change in the transfer’s management rule on water availability in the recipient area.

Cretaceous Small Scavengers: Feeding Traces in Tetrapod Bones from Patagonia, Argentina

Ecological relationships among fossil vertebrate groups are interpreted based on evidence of modification features and paleopathologies on fossil bones. Here we describe an ichnological assemblage composed of trace fossils on reptile bones, mainly sphenodontids, crocodyliforms and maniraptoran theropods. They all come from La Buitrera, an early Late Cretaceous locality in the Candeleros Formation of northwestern Patagonia, Argentina. This locality is significant because of the abundance of small to medium-sized vertebrates. The abundant ichnological record includes traces on bones, most of them attributable to tetrapods. These latter traces include tooth marks that provde evidence of feeding activities made during the sub-aerial exposure of tetrapod carcasses. Other traces are attributable to arthropods or roots. The totality of evidence provides an uncommon insight into paleoecological aspects of a Late Cretaceous southern ecosystem.