Alexander Marc Van Der Lee

Reducing motion artifacts in photoplethysmograms by using relative sensor motion: phantom study

Abstract. Currently, photoplethysmograms (PPGs) are mostly used to determine a patient’s blood oxygenation and pulse rate. However, PPG morphology conveys more information about the patient’s cardiovascular status. Extracting this information requires measuring clean PPG waveforms that are free of artifacts. PPGs are highly susceptible to motion, which can distort the PPG-derived data. Part of the motion artifacts are considered to result from sensor-tissue motion and sensor deformation. It is hypothesized that these motion artifacts correlate with movement of the sensor with respect to the skin. This hypothesis has been proven true in a laboratory setup. In vitro PPGs have been measured in a skin perfusion phantom that is illuminated by a laser diode. Optical motion artifacts are generated in the PPG by translating the laser diode with respect to the PPG photodiode. The optical motion artifacts have been reduced significantly in vitro, by using a normalized least-mean-square algorithm with only a single coefficient that uses the laser’s displacement as a reference for the motion artifacts. Laser displacement has been measured accurately via self-mixing interferometry by a compact laser diode with a ball lens integrated into the package, which can be easily integrated into a commercial sensor.

Two-Dimensional Optical Storage

Two-dimensional optical storage aims at increasing the data capacity and data rate for a given physical read-out system. It uses parallel read-out in combination with advanced signal-processing. Experimental results results on read only memory (ROM) discs are presented that proof the concept. Laser beam recorded discs proof the concept, and electron beam recorded disc show the feasibility at real physical parameters for a density at 35 GB with ample tilt margins.

PPG motion artifact handling using a self-mixing interferometric sensor

Pulse oximeters measure a patients heart rate and blood oxygenation by illuminating the skin and measuring the intensity of the light that has propagated through it. The measured intensities, called photoplethysmograms (PPGs), are highly susceptible to motion, which can distort the PPG derived data. Part of the motion artifacts are considered to result from sensor deformation, leading to a change in emitter-detector distance. It is hypothesized that these motion artifacts correlate to movement of the emitter with respect to the skin. This has been investigated in a laboratory setup in which motion artifacts can be reproducibly generated by translating the emitter with respect to a flowcell that models skin perfusion. The top of the flowcell is a diffuse scattering Delrin skin phantom under which a cardiac induced blood pulse is modeled by a changing milk volume. By illuminating the flowcell, a PPG can be measured. The emitters translation has been accurately measured using self-mixing interferometry (SMI). The motion artifacts in the PPG as a result of emitter motion are shown to correlate with the emitters displacement. Moreover, it is shown that these artifacts are significantly reduced by a least-mean-square algorithm that uses the emitters displacement measured via SMI as artifact reference.

Drive Considerations for Blu-ray Multi-Layer Discs

In this paper we look at the issues involved in the drive design for multi-layer Blu-ray Disc. We will discuss the layer thickness correction and signal to noise ratio. Furthermore we will experimentally investigate the layer cross-talk. The cross-talk from data on other layers, and the consequences of the layer cross-talk for the radial push–pull signal of the main spot and the satellite spots are addressed. It is found that a simple drive design is still possible, provided that for radial tracking only the main spot is used.

VCSEL based sensors for distance and velocity

VCSEL based sensors can measure distance and velocity in three dimensional space and are already produced in high quantities for professional and consumer applications. Several physical principles are used: VCSELs are applied as infrared illumination for surveillance cameras. High power arrays combined with imaging optics provide a uniform illumination of scenes up to a distance of several hundred meters. Time-of-flight methods use a pulsed VCSEL as light source, either with strong single pulses at low duty cycle or with pulse trains. Because of the sensitivity to background light and the strong decrease of the signal with distance several Watts of laser power are needed at a distance of up to 100m. VCSEL arrays enable power scaling and can provide very short pulses at higher power density. Applications range from extended functions in a smartphone over industrial sensors up to automotive LIDAR for driver assistance and autonomous driving. Self-mixing interference works with coherent laser photons scattered back into the cavity. It is therefore insensitive to environmental light. The method is used to measure target velocity and distance with very high accuracy at distances up to one meter. Single-mode VCSELs with integrated photodiode and grating stabilized polarization enable very compact and cost effective products. Besides the well know application as computer input device new applications with even higher accuracy or for speed over ground measurement in automobiles and up to 250km/h are investigated. All measurement methods exploit the known VCSEL properties like robustness, stability over temperature and the potential for packages with integrated optics and electronics. This makes VCSEL sensors ideally suited for new mass applications in consumer and automotive markets.

Adaptation and timing recovery for two-dimensional optical storage

This paper discusses several issues related to adaptation and timing recovery for two-dimensional (2D) optical storage. In the TwoDOS format bits are stored on a 2D hexagonal lattice which is formed by recording multiple bit rows with a fixed phase relation in a so-called broad spiral or meta-spiral. Besides a large increase in data rate by reading out with multiple spots, also a density increase by a factor of two compared to Blu-ray Disc is targeted. To increase the storage density, 2D signal processing is proposed including 2D PRML detection in the form of a stripe-wise Viterbi detector. This detector introduces an increasing detection delay when going from the outer rows towards the center of the broad spiral. For fast control loops in a decision-directed mode, special measures are needed to avoid instability due to this delay. Another issue is the large span of the 2D inter-symbol interference at higher densities and tilt, leading to a large 2D equalizer. Furthermore, in case the broad spiral is recorded with a multiple-pass mastering technology (e.g. for ROM TwoDOS discs), write-channel imperfections such as time-varying lattice distortion require independent timing recovery on each row within the broad spiral.

Two-dimensional optical storage: high-speed read-out of a 50 GByte single-layer optical disc with a 2D format using lambda=405 nm and NA=0.85

With ever increasing storage capacities, long read-out times of content are becoming a bottleneck for the convenient use of optical storage devices. Two-dimensional optical storage (TwoDOS) is a new concept that solves this data-rate problem through parallel read-out. Furthermore, an increase of at least a factor of 2 in storage capacity is achieved by exploiting a two-dimensional format. The advantages offered by TwoDOS are obtained without the need of changing the physics of the read-out system. Using Blu-ray Disc optics, single-layered 12 cm discs with capacities up to 50 GByte have been read out successfully. Signal level and error analysis show the feasibility of a further capacity increase. Also, bit-rates as high as 700 Mbit/s during read-out have been reached. All this is achieved by applying advanced signal processing and advanced disc mastering techniques and the proper design of the optical path.

High power electrically pumped VECSELs and arrays

VECSELs are characterized by an outstanding brightness of 100kW/mm²/sr and a small spectral width. Electrical pumping and the potential to combine many emitters in arrays allow for highly integrated and easy to manufacture laser sources which can be scaled towards high power. This almost ideal value proposition is affected by the penalty in efficiency which reduces the output power from VCSELs towards multimode VECSELs and finally single mode VECSELs. The root causes for this lower efficiency are optical losses in the extended cavity, a mismatch of pump and mode profile and losses related to the oxide aperture which is used for current confinement. The reduction of losses requires a careful design of spatial doping distributions in the epitaxially grown layers as these losses have to be balanced against the requirement of low electrical resistance across the many hetero-interfaces in the DBR mirrors. The mismatch of pump and mode profile and the aperture related losses are addressed by an improved current injection enabled by a tailored electrical contact. In this paper optimized structures will be presented which enable a significant increase of efficiency and output power towards more than 150mW in a single mode and more than 300mW in multimode operation. The optical concept of the extended cavity can use a plane mirror in the simplest case thus facilitating the power scaling in arrays with many individual VECSEL apertures combined on a single chip.