Alexandra Coghlan

Applying a transformative learning framework to volunteer tourism

This paper applies the educational theory of transformative learning to reconceptualising the practices of volunteer tourism. The theory of transformative learning posits a 10-step process to experience a radical shift in consciousness that dramatically and irreversibly alters how participants see their place in the world. Volunteer tourism has commonly been seen as a form of alternative tourism that provides a cathartic experience for the volunteer tourists and benefits to the hosting organisation and the natural and/or social environment of the project. Existing research suggests that these outcomes have not, as yet, been achieved by current practices in this sector. In referring to the theory of transformative learning we note that some, but not all, of the 10 steps have been applied and that we might therefore expect volunteer tourism to fall short of its promises. We conclude that the theory of transformative learning offers a useful framework for volunteer tourism, providing insights into the need to create opportunities for participants to complete the transformative process. We suggest that volunteer tourism organisations redesign their activities to include the remaining steps of transformative learning to improve their product for both the tourists and the sustainability outcomes of the projects.

Tracking Affective Components of Satisfaction

This study seeks to heighten an appreciation of the multiple aspects of satisfaction by considering on-site travel experiences. Novel approaches to satisfaction are considered particularly appropriate in less structured and dynamic tourism settings where expectations are poorly defined and the expectancy disconfirmation paradigm is thus less applicable. Accordingly, this study examines the links between travel motivations, activities, emotions and satisfaction levels in tourists, using examples from a select number of tourists on dynamic volunteer tourism expeditions. Data were collected using diaries and analysed at individual and group levels, providing general experiential patterns and illustrating a linked approach to exploring tourists experiences, emotions and satisfaction. The results highlight that emotional variability occurs across time with distinct phases of positivity, annoyance and receptivity. This variability appeared to be linked to daily activities and personal characteristics. Furthermore, satisfaction levels did not always follow the patterns of emotional variability, which were in turn weakly related to expectations and motivations that were recorded at the start of the trip. Learning how to identify this variability may improve the monitoring and the management of the tourism experience and maximise tourists well being.

Towards an Integrated Image-based Typology of Volunteer Tourism Organisations

This paper focuses on volunteer tourism organisations that offer conservation expeditions, where volunteer tourists can assist in scientific research or ecological restoration. It seeks to identify organisational images and suggest how these images affect the expectations of volunteer tourists. Using the promotional material of volunteer tourism organisations, the contents of organisations mission statements, promotional photographs and volunteer testimonies were analysed. Potential volunteer tourists were also asked to perform a multiple sorting procedure on the organisations brochures to assess their images of volunteer tourism organisations. From the results, four groups of volunteer tourism organisations were identified and labelled ‘conservation research expeditions’, ‘holiday conservation expeditions’;, ‘adventure conservation expeditions’ and ‘community holiday expeditions’. It is proposed that organisations need to be aware of their perceived images in order to match their volunteers expectations and needs, manage tourists expectations and ensure the success of their volunteer tourism expeditions.

Sustainable urban tourism: understanding and developing visitor pro-environmental behaviours

This paper shifts the debate on sustainable tourism destinations from an emphasis on ecotourism and eco-resorts towards sustainable urban tourism destinations. A quantitative online survey of visitors to Melbourne, Australia, examined tourists’ pro-environmental behaviours in four major categories: recycling; green transport use; sustainable energy/material use (lighting/water usage), and green food consumption. It explores five major antecedents to those categories: habitual behaviour, environmental attitudes, facilities available, a need to take a break from environmental duties, and sense of tourist social responsibility. The paper also examines the poorly understood belief that pro-environmental behaviour weakens when residents become tourists. Existing habits were found to strongly influence all four urban pro-environmental behaviours. Available facilities are the second most important antecedent. Overall, urban tourist pro-environment behaviour drivers differ markedly from those of residents or ecotourists. A range of tourism industry and public sector agency policy recommendations are made, in terms of developing specific, well sited and easy to find/use environmental infrastructure assets such as recycling facilities and public transport, reducing implementation barriers and in formulating an overall pro-environmental image for the destination. The study envisages a new concept, tourist social responsibility, with high relevance to furthering tourisms sustainability.

Myth or substance: an examination of altruism as the basis of volunteer tourism

Abstract Altruism is commonly associated with volunteer tourism as a motivational force for participants and a key factor in their on‐site experiences. In this paper we seek a better understanding of the term altruism, and how it applies to the volunteer tourism sector. By applying altruism models that include outcomes of helping defined as both instrumental and ultimate goals, we review the volunteer tourism literature to look for egoistic and altruistic goals. Specifically, we examine volunteer tourists’ motivations as well as experiences and benefits as outlined in 43 academic papers. The results suggest that, while volunteer tourists may behave in an altruistic manner, personal benefits derived from the experience by and large dominate the experience. It would appear that volunteer tourism represents a form of social egoism, which depending on the management of the volunteer tourists, and the goals and implementation of the projects goals, will indeed benefit local environments and communities. To move the debate forward, we suggest that the market forces as applied to the volunteer tourism sector may be examined, and other terms such as Eudaimonia be used to explain the pluralistic motivations, desires, and roles of volunteer tourists.

An autoethnographic account of a cycling charity challenge event: Exploring manifest and latent aspects of the experience

Charity challenges are an increasingly popular form of alternative tourism, drawing upon charity events, sports and tourism. This study adopts a thematic/analytic autoethnographic approach to explore some of the themes present in the authors experience of a 3-day cycling charity challenge event in Queensland, Australia. The aim of the research was specifically to draw forth both the manifest and latent aspects of the experience using diary entries recorded during the event. Using an emic, inductive approach, eight manifest themes that could be analysed with respect to the broader literature on tourism, sports and charity events were identified. An additional two latent themes that had not been examined previously within this context also appeared in the analysis. The first was the notion of creative expression as a result of fundraising for the event, and the second was related to overcoming a fear of cycling in traffic. The findings raise questions about how we might understand the unspoken facets of the tourism experience as topics such as fear and anxiety are not easy to discuss with external researchers or to capture in their entirety through more prescriptive research methods, such as surveys and structured or semi-structured interviews. This paper provides insights into one event that occurs at the boundaries of cycling tourism, sports and charity events whilst advocating for an understanding of the nuances that permeate participants experiences of such events. Failure to recognise and acknowledge these nuances may lead to misleading managerial suggestions, poor policy design and unsuccessful new initiatives.

Welcome to the wet tropics: the importance of weather in reef tourism resilience

As one of Australias iconic tourism attractions and one of the seven natural wonders of the world, the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) is an important economic, social and natural resource for Queenslands Tropical North. However, the long-term prognosis for the health of the reef and by implication, the industries dependent on it, is not positive. So far much attention has focussed on the health and resilience of the reef ecosystem, as a foundation for a resilient tourism industry. In this study we explore how weather conditions have affected the reef experiences of 1000 tourists to the Cairns/Port Douglas region, suggesting that this may also be an important indicator of change on the reef. The results suggest that poor weather has a more pronounced effect on experiences than good weather and reinforce the likelihood that seasickness, cold and wet conditions, reduced water visibility, and difficult snorkelling/diving conditions will reduce overall levels of satisfaction. Poor weather was found to have a direct effect on satisfaction scores, the likelihood that reef and tour expectations were not realised, and lowered perceived value for money. These are important considerations for the reef centred tourism industry that is currently facing strong environment pressures from climate change.

The dynamics behind volunteer tourism

This chapter directs attention towards the antecedents of one emerging form of contemporary tourism; specifically it focuses on the roots of volunteer tourism. It is argued here that there are four useful levels of analysis in seeking an understanding of the drivers of alternative tourism and its immediate exemplar of volunteer tourism. The levels are initially broad and inclusive but as each layer of analysis is considered and the questions it addresses are discussed, the focus becomes more specific. The first level of analysis is historical and broadly anthropological and here the development of civilizations, environmental ethics and the quest for otherness will be explored as sources of understanding. Next, a macro-sociological view will be explored. While at times such a view is closely allied to the cultural historians and anthropologists perspectives, some additional insights will be generated by considering the characteristics attributed to generational differences. In particular, the contrasting travel attitudes and values of baby boomers, generation X and generation Y cohorts will be considered. The active, embodied responses of these cohorts to what is broadly referred to as postmodernity complete a third and dynamic micro-sociological level of explanation. The final level of explanation to be employed is psychological with the frameworks of social psychology (in terms of equity theory) and motivational analysis both making contributions to the discussion. It will be argued that, like tourism itself, the roots of volunteer tourism are based in different layers of human and social needs which act in concert to create the forms we witness. For the participating individuals, for the companies which manage the volunteer experiences and for the communities and settings the volunteers assist, the sharper understanding of the forces giving rise to volunteer tourism can be used to assess its likely longevity. At a less pragmatic level, an understanding of tourisms role in shaping issues of identity and human growth is a particular insight from the focus on the roots of volunteer tourism.

Linking natural resource management to tourist satisfaction: a study of Australia's Great Barrier Reef

This paper challenges the accepted tenet that conservation creates attractive tourist experiences and high satisfaction rates, and explores the nature and value of partnerships between protected area managers and tourism operators. It develops a model to examine the linkages between natural resource management and nature-based tourism industry performance. The model uses input measures (such as the expertise and financial resources put into maintaining a healthy ecosystem), output measures (visitor perceptions of the environment and their experience of it) and outcome measures (satisfaction scores), to examine these linkages. Whilst the links between input, outputs and outcomes appear relatively weak, results suggest that operators can strengthen those links through high service quality, effective interpretation, in order to produce higher visitor satisfaction. The relationship between the natural environment itself and satisfaction was less clear, perhaps symptomatic of the “messiness” of protected area tourism systems where cause and effects are not always clear. The study suggests that perceptions of the natural environment and the nature-based tourist experience are best mediated through the tour operators’ input into creating and maintaining quality staff, to complement and demonstrate inputs by protected area managers, within the context of long-term partnerships between natural resource management and nature-based tourism.

Post Crisis Recovery: The Case of After Cyclone Larry

SUMMARY In recent years a growing number of disasters have affected the tourism industry on scales that range from regional to global. Although there have been a number of significant disasters including SARS, the September 11 attack on the US in 2001, coups in Fiji and the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997/98 the impacts on the tourism industry in the affected regions and/or countries have been surprisingly short-term. There is still much to learn from how crisis events were managed by the various industry and government authorities involved. This paper focuses on aspects of the impact of Cyclone Larry on the North Queensland tourism industry by examining the impact on visitor flows in the short term and recording the views of visitors who had travelled to the region several months after the event. The research identifies aspects of visitor behaviours and expectations that may be of use to industry and government to better inform managers and policy makers in their planning and management functions.