Alytia A. Levendosky

Parenting in Battered Women: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Women and Their Children

This study integrates an ecological perspective and trauma theory in proposing a model of the effects of domestic violence on womens parenting and childrens adjustment. One hundred and twenty women and their children between the ages of 7 and 12 participated. Results supported an ecological model of the impact of domestic violence on women and children. The model predicted 40% of the variance in childrens adjustment, 8% of parenting style, 43% of maternal psychological functioning, and 23% of marital satisfaction, using environmental factors such as social support, negative life events, and maternal history of child abuse. Overall, results support the ecological framework and trauma theory in understanding the effects of domestic violence on women and children. Rather than focusing on internal pathology, behavior is seen to exist on a continuum influenced heavily by the context in which the person is developing.

The impact of domestic violence on the maternal-child relationship and preschool-age children's functioning.

Although preschool-age children are at risk for witnessing domestic violence, the majority of research has focused on children ages 6 to 12 years. This study examines the mediating role of the mother-child relationship on preschool-age childrens functioning in families experiencing domestic violence. Maternal report and behavioral observations of mother-child interactions were used to assess relationship quality. Participants consisted of 103 children and their mothers. The data fit the model well but indicated that some of the correlations were not in the expected direction. Although depressed mothers were struggling with parenting, other mothers appeared to be compensating for the violence by becoming more effective parents. Domestic violence negatively impacted childrens behavior with their mothers in interactions but did not influence maternal report of problem behaviors, suggesting that the impact of domestic violence begins very early and in the realm of relationships rather than in mental health.

Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Children of Battered Women

The posttraumatic stress symptoms of 64 children ages 7 to 12 were assessed by their mothers, who had experienced emotional and physical abuse during the past year. A measure of child symptoms based on DSM-IV criteria was used. Of the children exposed to violence, 13% qualified for a complete posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis. However, 52% suffered from intrusive and unwanted remembering of the traumatic event(s), 19% displayed traumatic avoidance, and 42% experienced traumatic arousal symptoms. Children with PTSD symptoms had significantly more internalizing behavioral problems, as expected; they also had more externalizing problems than did children without trauma symptoms.

Resilience Among Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: The Role of Risk and Protective Factors

Individual and family characteristics that predict resilience among children exposed to domestic violence (DV) were examined. Mother-child dyads (n = 190) were assessed when the children were 2, 3, and 4 years of age. DV-exposed children were 3.7 times more likely than nonexposed children to develop internalizing or externalizing problems. However, 54% of DV-exposed children maintained positive adaptation and were characterized by easy temperament (odds ratio [OR] = .39, d = .52) and nondepressed mothers (OR = 1.14, d = .07), as compared to their nonresilient counterparts. Chronic DV was associated with maternal depression, difficult child temperament, and internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Results underscore heterogeneous outcomes among DV-exposed children and the influence of individual and family characteristics on childrens adaptation.

Adolescent survivors of childhood sexual abuse: The mediating role of attachment style and coping in psychological and interpersonal functioning

OBJECTIVE To examine attachment style and coping strategies as potential mediating variables between childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and psychological and interpersonal functioning in an attempt to explain variability in extent of disorder and level of functioning. METHOD Eighty adolescent females, aged 14-16 years, answered questions regarding abuse history, attachment style, coping with an interpersonal stressor, depression and trauma symptomatology, and conflict with a best friend. RESULTS Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that attachment style mediates the effects of CSA and child abuse and neglect on coping and psychological distress. The indirect effects of CSA and other abuse through attachment accounted for most of the effects on coping and psychological distress. Avoidant and cognitive coping strategies also served as mediators in the models, accounting for most of the effects of the other variables on interpersonal conflict. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that attachment style and coping strategies influence psychological and interpersonal functioning, mediating the direct effects of CSA and other types of child abuse and neglect. These results have implications for therapeutic intervention with children and adolescents who have experienced child abuse.

Trauma Symptoms in Preschool-Age Children Exposed to Domestic Violence

The posttraumatic stress symptoms of 39 children who had witnessed domestic violence and 23 children who were living in families with domestic violence were assessed by maternal report. Two measures of PTSD were used and compared, one based on the DSM-IV symptom list and one from the CBCL. Although all children had experienced at least one symptom of trauma, only 3% or 24% of the children, depending on the measure used, met criteria for PTSD based on the DSM-IV. Children with reexperiencing trauma symptoms also had more externalizing behavior problems. The applicability of DSM-IV criteria for young children and the use of the CBCL to assess trauma symptoms were questioned.

The Moderating Effects of Parenting Stress on Children's Adjustment in Woman-Abusing Families

Research on the psychological effects of domestic violence on women and children has flourished in the past few years, concluding that both suffer increased adjustment problems and psychopathology. The current studies, however, have not provided an understanding of the processes or factors that can protect children from being detrimentally affected. The purpose of this study was to examine the potential moderating effects of maternal parenting stress on childrens adjustment in homes with varying levels of domestic violence. The sample consisted of 60 sheltered battered women and their 7- to 12-year-old children, and 61 nonsheltered women and children from the same community. Results indicated that childrens adjustment was significantly predicted by parenting stress after controlling for psychological and physical abuse of the mother. Results are discussed in light of protective and vulnerability factors for childrens adjustment in high-risk families.

Behavioral observations of parenting in battered women.

The current study assessed observational data of parenting in 95 battered women and their school-aged childrens behavioral adjustment and analyzed them within an ecological framework. Results indicated that maternal experience of psychological and physical abuse predicts maternal warmth, but not maternal authority-control, over and above ontogenic and exosystemic factors. In addition, maternal experience of psychological abuse and maternal authority-control predicted childrens observed behavior, over and above child characteristics. An ecological framework for understanding the effects of domestic violence on parenting was supported.

The Social Networks of Women Experiencing Domestic Violence

The research literature has demonstrated that battered women living in shelters experience impaired social support. This study examines this phenomenon among battered women living in the community. This study compared a group of pregnant battered women (n=145) and a group of pregnant nonbattered women (n=58) in terms of their structural [e.g., total number of supporters, network members in violent relationships with their partners (an index of homophily or nonhomophily) and functional (e.g., emotional)] social support. Four reasons for impaired support in battered women were proposed and examined, including social isolation, failure to disclose abuse, homophily, and low SES. Only homophily was related to impaired support among battered women. In addition, the relationship between structural and functional support and mental health outcomes (e.g., depression, self-esteem) was examined. Criticism, practical support, homophily, and disclosure were all significant predictors of mental health for battered women. Implications for community-based interventions are discussed in the context of current intervention strategies with battered women.

Adolescent Peer Relationships and Mental Health Functioning in Families With Domestic Violence

Examined the impact of domestic violence, child abuse, and attachment style on adolescent mental health and relationship functioning. Data were collected on 111 adolescents, ages 14 to 16, and their mothers. Results indicate that both attachment and family violence experiences negatively impact mental health. In addition, family violence significantly predicted attachment style. Significant protective and vulnerability factors included maternal psychological functioning, maternal positive parenting, and perceived social support from friends. However, findings provided only limited support for the model of attachment as a mediator of the impact of family violence on adolescent relationships.