Sandra A. Graham-Bermann

Parenting in Battered Women: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Women and Their Children

This study integrates an ecological perspective and trauma theory in proposing a model of the effects of domestic violence on womens parenting and childrens adjustment. One hundred and twenty women and their children between the ages of 7 and 12 participated. Results supported an ecological model of the impact of domestic violence on women and children. The model predicted 40% of the variance in childrens adjustment, 8% of parenting style, 43% of maternal psychological functioning, and 23% of marital satisfaction, using environmental factors such as social support, negative life events, and maternal history of child abuse. Overall, results support the ecological framework and trauma theory in understanding the effects of domestic violence on women and children. Rather than focusing on internal pathology, behavior is seen to exist on a continuum influenced heavily by the context in which the person is developing.

Peer Experience: Common and Unique Features of Number of Friendships, Social Network Centrality, and Sociometric Status

Three conceptually distinct dimensions of classroom social position (number of mutual friendships, social network centrality, and sociometric status) were examined in relation to each other and to peer-nominated behavioral reputation among 205 7- and 8-year old children. There were moderate correlations in children’s standing across the three dimensions, but categorical analyses underscored the limits to these associations (e.g., 39% of Rejected children had at least one mutual friendship; 31% of Popular children did not). Each dimension was associated with a distinct profile of peer-nominated social behavior and, in multiple regression analyses, accounted for unique variance in peer-nominated behaviors. Number of friendships was uniquely associated with prosocial skills; network centrality was uniquely associated with both prosocial and antisocial behavioral styles; and being disliked was uniquely associated with the full range of social behaviors. Results provide empirical validation for the conceptual distinctions among number of reciprocated friendships, social network centrality and being liked or disliked.

Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Children of Battered Women

The posttraumatic stress symptoms of 64 children ages 7 to 12 were assessed by their mothers, who had experienced emotional and physical abuse during the past year. A measure of child symptoms based on DSM-IV criteria was used. Of the children exposed to violence, 13% qualified for a complete posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis. However, 52% suffered from intrusive and unwanted remembering of the traumatic event(s), 19% displayed traumatic avoidance, and 42% experienced traumatic arousal symptoms. Children with PTSD symptoms had significantly more internalizing behavioral problems, as expected; they also had more externalizing problems than did children without trauma symptoms.

Domestic violence in the lives of children : the future of research, intervention, and social policy

Issues and Controversies in Documenting the Prevalence of Childrens Exposure to Domestic Violence - Ernest N. Jouriles, Renee McDonald, William D. Norwood, and Elizabeth Ezell Long-Term Effects of Childrens Exposure to Domestic Violence - B. B. Robbie Rossman Resilience in Children Exposed to Domestic Violence - Honore M. Hughes, Sandra A. Graham-Berman, and Gabrielle Gruber Studying the Co-Occurrence of Child Maltreatment and Woman Battering in Families - Jeffrey L. Edleson Ethically Sound Research on Childrens Exposure to Domestic Violence: A Proposal - Einat Peled Overcoming Mother Blaming? Future Directions for Research on Mothering and Domestic Violence - Lorraine Radford and Marianne Hester Fatherhood and Domestic Violence Exploring the Role of Men Who Batter in the Lives of their Children - Oliver Williams, Jacqueline Bogess, and Janet Carter Domestic Violence and High-Conflict Divorce: Developing a New Generation of Research for Children - Peter G. Jaffe, Samantha Poisson, and Alison Cunningham Researching Childrens Experience of Domestic Violence: Toward a Multidimensional Conceptualization - Zvi C. Eisikovits and Zeev Winstok Critical Issues in Research on Social Networks and Social Supports of Children Exposed to Domestic Violence - Sandra K. Beeman Designing Intervention Evaluations for Children Exposed to Domestic Violence: Applications of Research and Theory - Sandra A. Graham-Bermann Evaluating Coordinated Community Responses for Abused Women and Their Children - Cris M. Sullivan and Nicole E. Allen Prevention of Domestic Violence: Emerging Initiatives - David A. Wolfe and Peter G. Jaffe

The Moderating Effects of Parenting Stress on Children's Adjustment in Woman-Abusing Families

Research on the psychological effects of domestic violence on women and children has flourished in the past few years, concluding that both suffer increased adjustment problems and psychopathology. The current studies, however, have not provided an understanding of the processes or factors that can protect children from being detrimentally affected. The purpose of this study was to examine the potential moderating effects of maternal parenting stress on childrens adjustment in homes with varying levels of domestic violence. The sample consisted of 60 sheltered battered women and their 7- to 12-year-old children, and 61 nonsheltered women and children from the same community. Results indicated that childrens adjustment was significantly predicted by parenting stress after controlling for psychological and physical abuse of the mother. Results are discussed in light of protective and vulnerability factors for childrens adjustment in high-risk families.

Behavioral observations of parenting in battered women.

The current study assessed observational data of parenting in 95 battered women and their school-aged childrens behavioral adjustment and analyzed them within an ecological framework. Results indicated that maternal experience of psychological and physical abuse predicts maternal warmth, but not maternal authority-control, over and above ontogenic and exosystemic factors. In addition, maternal experience of psychological abuse and maternal authority-control predicted childrens observed behavior, over and above child characteristics. An ecological framework for understanding the effects of domestic violence on parenting was supported.

Community-Based Intervention for Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence: An Efficacy Trial.

A community-based intervention program was tested with 181 children ages 6-12 and their mothers exposed to intimate partner violence during the past year. A sequential assignment procedure allocated participants to 3 conditions: child-only intervention, child-plus-mother intervention (CM), and a wait-list comparison. A 2-level hierarchical linear model consisting of repeated observations within individuals and individuals assigned to conditions was used to evaluate the effects of time from baseline to postintervention comparing the 3 conditions and from postintervention to 8-month follow-up for both intervention conditions. Outcomes were individual childrens externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and attitudes about violence. Of the 3 conditions, CM children showed the greatest improvement over time in externalizing problems and attitudes about violence. There were 79% fewer children with clinical range externalizing scores and 77% fewer children with clinical range internalizing scores from baseline to follow-up for CM children.

Factors discriminating among profiles of resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV)

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the social and emotional adjustment of 219 children in families with varying levels of intimate partner violence (IPV) using a model of risk and protection. To explore factors that differentiate children with poor adjustment from those with resilience. METHODOLOGY Mothers who experienced IPV in the past year and their children ages 6-12 were interviewed. Standardized measures assessed family violence, parenting, family functioning, maternal mental health, and childrens adjustment and beliefs. RESULTS Using cluster analysis, all cases with valid data on the Child Behavior Checklist, Child Depression Inventory, General Self-Worth and Social Self-Competence measures were described by four profiles of childrens adjustment: Severe Adjustment Problems (24%); children who were Struggling (45%); those with Depression Only (11%); and Resilient (20%) with high competence and low adjustment problems. Multinomial logistic regression analyses showed children in the Severe Problems cluster witnessed more family violence and had mothers higher in depression and trauma symptoms than other children. Resilient and Struggling children had mothers with better parenting, more family strengths and no past violent partner. Parents of children with Severe Problems were lacking these attributes. The Depressed profile children witnessed less violence but had greater fears and worries about mothers safety. CONCLUSION Factors related to the child, to the mother and to the family distinguish different profiles of adjustment for children exposed to IPV who are living in the community. Resilient children have less violence exposure, fewer fears and worries, and mothers with better mental health and parenting skills, suggesting avenues for intervention with this population. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS Findings suggest that child adjustment is largely influenced by parent functioning. Thus, services should be targeted at both the child and the parent. Clinical interventions shaped to the unique needs of the child might also be tested with this population.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Pregnancy Complications

Objective To assess the associations between specific pregnancy complications and posttraumatic stress disorder based on neurobiologic and behavioral characteristics, using Michigan Medicaid claims data from 1994–1996. Methods Two thousand, two hundred nineteen female recipients of Michigan Medicaid who were of childbearing age had posttraumatic stress disorder on the basis of International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (ICD-9) codes. Twenty percent (n = 455) of those recipients and 30% of randomly selected comparison women with no mental health diagnostic codes (n = 638; P < .001) had ICD-9 diagnostic codes for pregnancy complications. We used multiple logistic regression to investigate associations between specific pregnancy complications and posttraumatic stress disorder, controlling for demographic and psychosocial variables. Obstetric complications were hypothesized based on high-risk behaviors and neurobiologic alterations in stress axis function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Results After controlling for demographic and psychosocial factors, women with posttraumatic stress disorder had higher odds ratios (ORs) for ectopic pregnancy (OR 1.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1, 2.8), spontaneous abortion (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.3, 2.9), hyperemesis (OR 3.9, 95% CI 2.0, 7.4), preterm contractions (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.1, 1.9), and excessive fetal growth (OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.0, 2.2). Hypothesized labor differences were not confirmed and no differences were found for complications not thought to be related to traumatic stress. Conclusions Pregnant women with posttraumatic stress disorder might be at higher risk for certain conditions, and assessment and treatment for undiagnosed posttraumatic stress might be warranted for women with those obstetric complications. Prospective studies are needed to confirm present findings and to determine potential biologic mechanisms. Treatment of traumatic stress symptoms might improve pregnancy morbidity and maternal mental health.

A Gender Analysis of Theories of Coping with Stress

In this article, various feminist theories are used to critique selected psychological theories of coping with stress, a reformulated coping theory is outlined, and recommendations for future research are made. To date, theories of coping often portray women as less able copers than the samples of men with whom they are compared. A reformulated theory, based on different womens experiences, explicitly examines the role of social forces (sexism, racism) and access to power as variables in the coping process rather than solely focusing on the individual. Selected examples of research that contribute to such a revision are given. Revised theories and methodologies will encourage the more accurate appraisal of womens coping abilities and generate information vital to the creation of more inclusive and representative theories of coping.