Amin Shaban

Remote sensing for environmental protection of the eastern Mediterranean rugged mountainous areas, Lebanon

Abstract Lying along the eastern Mediterranean coast with elevated mountain chains higher than 2500 m straddling its terrain, Lebanon is a country of natural beauty and is thus attracting tourism. However, with a population density exceeding 800/km2 and a rugged steep sloping land, problems abound in the country calling for holistic-approach studies. Only remote sensing, whose use is new in Lebanon can secure such needed studies within a scientific and pragmatic framework. The paper demonstrates for the concerned themes, the innovative use of remote sensing in such a difficult terrain, giving three examples of major environmental problems in the coastal mountains. Only few studies have so far focused on those mountains, notably application of remote sensing. The rugged mountainous terrain receives considerable rain, but the water is quickly lost running on the steep slopes, or infiltrating through fractures and the karstic conduits into the subsurface. Field investigations are difficult to achieve, therefore, remote sensing helps reveal various surface land features important in reflecting water feeding into the subsurface. Optical, radar and thermal infrared remotely sensed data cover a wide spectrum serving that purpose. A map of preferential groundwater accumulation potential is produced. It can serve for better water exploitation as well as protection. Because the terrain is karstic and rugged, the subsurface water flow is difficult to discern. Any pollution at a certain spot would certainly spread around. This constitutes the second example of environmental problems facing the mountainous areas in Lebanon. An integrated approach using remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) gives good results in finding out the likelihood of how pollution, or contaminants, can selectively move in the subsurface. A diagnostic analysis with a GIS-type software acts as a guide producing indicative maps for the above purpose. The third example given deals with the problem of losing soil, which is a very vital source in such mountainous land. With steep slopes, torrential rain and improper human interference, run-off is high and water–soil erosion is continuously deteriorating the land cover. Remote sensing can facilitate studying the factors enhancing the process, such as soil type, slope gradient, drainage, geology and land cover. Digital elevation models created from SAR imagery contribute significantly to assessing vulnerability of hydric-soil erosion over such a difficult terrain. GIS layers of the above factors are integrated with erosional criteria to produce a risk map of soil erosion. Results indicate that 36% of the Lebanese terrain is under threat of high-level erosion, and 52% of that is concentrated in the rugged mountainous regions.

Remote sensing application to estimate the volume of water in the form of snow on Mount Lebanon / Application de la télédétection à l’estimation du volume d’eau sous forme de neige sur le Mont Liban

Abstract Abstract At least one-quarter of the Lebanese terrain is covered by snow annually, thus contributing integrally to feeding surface and subsurface water resources. However, only limited estimates of snow cover have been carried out and applied locally. The use of remote sensing has enhanced significantly the delineation of snow cover over the mountains. Several satellite images and sensors are used in this respect. In this study, SPOT-4 (1-km resolution) satellite images are used. They have the capability to acquire consecutive images every 10 days, thus monitoring the dynamic change of snow and its maximum coverage could be achieved. This was applied to Mount Lebanon for the years 2001–2002. The areas covered by snow were delineated, and then manipulated with the slope angle and altitudes in order to classify five major zones of snowmelt potential. The field investigation was carried out in each zone by measuring depths and snow/water ratio. A volume of around 1100 × 106 m3 of water was derived from snowmelt over the given period. This is equivalent to a precipitation rate of about 425 mm in the region, revealing the considerable portion of water that is derived from snowmelt.

Investigating the time dynamics of monthly rainfall time series observed in northern Lebanon by means of the detrended fluctuation analysis and the Fisher-Shannon method

We investigate the time dynamics of monthly rainfall series intermittently recorded on seven climatic stations in northern Lebanon from 1939 to 2010 using the detrending fluctuation analysis (DFA) and the Fisher-Shannon (FS) method. The DFA is employed to study the scaling properties of the series, while the FS method to analyze their order/organization structure. The obtained results indicate that most all the stations show a significant persistent behavior, suggesting that the dynamics of the rainfall series is governed by positive feedback mechanisms. Furthermore, we found that the Fisher Information Measure (the Shannon entropy power) seems to decrease (increase) with the height of the rain gauge; this indicates that the rainfall series appear less organized and less regular for higher-located stations. Such findings could be useful for a better comprehension of the climatic regimes governing northern Lebanon.

Characterization of an Oil Spill Along the Lebanese Coast by Satellite Images

The Lebanon population witnessed a severe environmental problem when one of the countrys largest coastal power stations in Jiyeh area was bombed on July 13, 2006. Several million gallons of fuel oil were released into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a huge oil spill. To assess the extent of the spill, two types of satellite images were used. First, the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS)-Terra images were obtained in near real-time immediately following the event and second advanced space-borne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (ASTER) images were taken about 1 month later. Results showed an oil plume with areal extent of approximately 3,100 km2 shortly after the event, reaching the northern coast of Lebanon. However, after 2 months, satellite monitoring showed the geographic distribution of oil was reduced to 185 km2. The bio-environmental impact of this oil spill, due to its size and hydraulic dynamics, makes a major disaster.

Analysis of long-term fluctuations in stream flow time series: An application to Litani River, Lebanon

Litani River is the largest river in Lebanon and has been affected by several physical and anthropogenic factors that influenced its flow dynamics. By means of the Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA), the time dynamics of the stream flow of seven sites along the course of Litani River was investigated, extracting for each site the long-term trend. A clear decreasing trend characterizes all the long-term trends of the stream flow. Furthermore, several peaks were identified, consistent with the rainfall rate and snow cover variability.

Climatic Induced Snowpack Surfaces on Lebanon's Mountains

There are tremendous aspects of water resources in Lebanon where the surface water sources are the most ex- ploited. However, snow is still the major water aspect that plays a role in feeding groundwater, springs and rivers. This water resource has been ignored since long-time and it was considered only for tourism. Nevertheless, the recently existed challenges on water supply in the region, notably the challenging climatic variability, makes it necessary to monitor the behavior and dynamics of snowpack on the mountainous regions of Lebanon. Therefore, several studies have been carried out in this respect, focusing on the use of space observations along several time series. While, few concerns were given to the physical characteristic and behavior of snow melt that resulting water flow regime. This study includes two major components of investigation. These are: the analysis of remotely sensed data to monitor snow cover area and the direct in- vestigation of snow samples in the field to measure the melting rate and patterns. Therefore, daily MODIS satellite im- ages, with moderate spatial resolution, were analyzed to detect any changing in the snow cover area, as well as to deduce the accumulation and melting regime. Whereas, field investigations were applied to 275 sites with different altitudes, dates and terrain aspects. The measures were analyzed to identify the relationship between snow cover dynamic, snow materials characteristics and the physical setting. Thiswill be a helpful tool to identify the climate control on the snow- pack; in addition, it contributes for new inputs on water resource management approaches, notably in the view of chang- ing climatic regime.

Studying Snowpack-Related Characteristics on Lebanon Mountains

Water resources in Lebanon are witnessing excessive use and demand for water has increased. Surface water is the most exhausted type of water in Lebanon due to the ease of its exploitation. Among examples of surface water, snow has received attention lately because it represents the major source for rivers, springs and groundwater reservoirs. However, the challenges for the water supply make it necessary to investigate the snow cover on the mountainous regions of Lebanon. Therefore, a number of studies have been conducted, but all emphasized the monitoring of snow cover using satellite imagery, while in-situ investigation of snowpack, including the majority of its physical parameters with respect to related characteristics, were not taken into account. This study considers mainly field observations of the snowpack carried out on 280 different sites in the Lebanon mountains. Samples were collected and tested in-situ. The parameters investigated are snowpack density, depth, hardness and surface roughness. The investigated sites were compared according to the following characteristics: altitude, slope, rock hardness, sample timing and sunlight aspect. The study aims to induce different empirical relations between the snowpack properties and the physical setting. This would be a helpful input for further water management measures, notably those concerned with water harvesting, supply and recharge/discharge approaches.

Physical Characteristics and Water Resources of the Litani River Basin

Litani River, with a 2110-km2 catchment area (about 20% of Lebanon) and a 174-km length, releases an average annual discharge of about 385 mm3/year. The river in its northern part flattens between the Mount-Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountain chains, thereby spanning between several mountain ridges in the southern part. Consequent streams are connected to its primary watercourse. The Litani River Basin (LRB) comprises an elongated catchment where it gently slopes from the north Bekaa Plain extending southward where it meanders westward to outlets into the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, the river transits into the inner and coastal zones of Lebanon comprising two major drainage systems (described as the Upper and Lower Basins) occupied into one watershed. The Qaraaoun Reservoir, the largest of its type in Lebanon (about 12 km2), is located in the southern part of the Upper Basin. Before 1959, the site of the reservoir comprised a natural depression. However, when large volumes of water started to accumulate there, a dam was built. Snow has a significant contribution to feeding the river. The extension of the Litani River among the carbonate rocks and alluvial deposits makes it an open hydrogeological system that is fed from and feeds on the permeable and porous lithologies. This chapter introduces the major physical characteristics of the Litani River including the catchment and drainage properties as well as the water resources and land cover.

Conclusion and Discussion

It is obvious that the Litani River has been given more attention than the other water resources in Lebanon. Issues on both the individual and institutional levels have been raised since the 1950s aiming to conserve the river water and make it a substantial component for the Lebanese economy and development.

The National Plan for Litani River Remediation

Analysis of the state of water-quality deterioration and land degradation in the Litani River Basin (LRB) and the governmental response is elaborated in this chapter. This is based on the projects and programs run in the basin starting from the mid-1990. Results of the assessment showed that the main sources of contamination in the basin imply a chaotic urban expansion with resulting loss of arable lands and pressure on water resources in terms of both quantitative and qualitative aspects. Dumping of domestic sewage into streams caused significant bacteriological contamination. A dangerous disposal of liquid and solid waste, including industrial and municipal waste, was observed, which put an increasing pressure on the chemical contamination of surface waters. The LRB represents the most intensive agricultural areas of the country, and thus poor agricultural practices result in the excess use of chemicals and accumulation of nitrates and soluble pollutants in the soil–water ecosystem. Several national and international projects have been tackling water pollution and ecosystem management of the LRB since the early 1990s as pure scientific interests, non-sustainable follow-up, and use of outputs and tools for the protection and monitoring of water quality in the basin. In 2006, an inter-ministerial committee recommended the elaboration of a business plan to identify the measures and alleviate the pollution in the Litani River and the Qaraaoun Reservoir. In 2012, the Lebanese government established a national multi-ministerial committee for depollution of the watershed led by the Ministry of Environment. The final business plan for combating pollution in the Qaraaoun Reservoir, elaborated by the United Nations Development Program, was adopted in 2013. In 2014, a committee was established to supervise the implementation of a road map for the remediation of the Qaraaoun Reservoir. In 2016, a loan of US