Andre A. Pekerti

Exploring servant leadership across cultures: Comparative study in Australia and Indonesia

This study extends the GLOBE study of 62 societies by investigating an emerging model of servant leadership (SL) across cultures. SL is a holistic and altruistic approach of leadership that focuses on the commitment to serve other people. Adopting Implicit Leadership Theorys (ILT) premise that people hold cognitive categories to distinguish between prototypical leaders from non-leaders, we predicted that SL would exist in Australia and Indonesia, but its practice would be moderated by culture. Our predictions were supported, SL was perceived to be culturally universal in Australia and Indonesia. However, the different attributes perceived to make up SL were not all rated as equally important. We argued that individual self-construal, socialization and national context would explain how and why culture-specific perceptions of SL exist. The implications of our study on international management practice are discussed in the concluding section.

Communication In Intercultural Interaction An Empirical Investigation of Idiocentric and Sociocentric Communication Styles

This study examined the communication styles of East Asians and Anglo-European New Zealanders (Pakeha). Results indicated that in general, Asians exhibited more sociocentric communication behavior whereas Pakeha exhibited more idiocentric behavior. In intercultural interactions, both the frequency and intensity of these behavior styles were exacerbated. Results further indicated that task accomplishment required more time in the intercultural condition as compared to homogeneous conditions. Implications for international management research and practice are discussed.

Effect of Culture on Situational Determinants of Exchange Behavior in Organizations A Comparison of New Zealand and Indonesia

This study examined the moderating effect of national culture on the relationship between a key situational indicator (job satisfaction) and the exchange behaviors of employees. The main effect of job satisfaction on the outcome behaviors of exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect was consistent in Indonesia and New Zealand suggesting a possible universal relationship. However, the cultural group of participants (Indonesia or New Zealand) moderated the influence of job satisfaction on all outcomes with the exception of voice. The implications of these results for theory and practice are discussed.

Development of the cultural intelligence assessment

The construct of cultural intelligence has recently been introduced to the management literature as an individual difference that may predict effectiveness and a variety of interpersonal behavior in the global business environment. This construct has enormous potential in helping to explain effectiveness in cross-cultural interactions. However, progress has been limited by the adequacy of existing measures. In this chapter, we describe the development and preliminary validation of a web-based assessment of cultural intelligence based on our conceptualization of cultural intelligence.

The mediating and moderating effects of conflict and communication openness on workplace trust

Purpose – Although a great deal of research has focused on the effect of trust on conflict, little research has examined the impact of conflict on trust. The purpose of this paper is to present a model that investigates the relationship between conflict types (task, relationship and process), conflict features (intensity and duration), communication openness (CO) and workplace trust. Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected from 510 employees from public sector organizations. The authors tested the direct effects of the hypothesized links with linear regressions while the mediation effects were tested using the Sobel test. Finally, the authors followed Kenny and Barons procedure to test the moderation effects. Findings – Results from the regression analyses confirm that conflict features (intensity and duration) fully mediated the link between conflict types (task, relationship and process) and trust, while CO moderated the relationship between conflict features and trust. In addition, prolonged conflict duration was linked with trust. Implications of the findings are discussed. Research limitations/implications – The study is cross sectional and some of our scales have few items. In future, more robust scales in a longitudinal study should be used to further deepen our understanding of the association between the variables in our model. In addition, we have studied the concept of trust as perceived by the employees without distinguishing between high- and low-trust perceptions. Future studies should compare levels of trust associated with the different types of conflict and especially varying magnitude of conflict intensity (e.g. low, mid and high) at different times. Originality/value – The study provides new insights into the influence that conflict (task, relationship and process) may have on trust and the moderating role of CO in the link between conflict and trust. The paper also offers a practical assistance to group members and leaders that are interested in building trust especially in the presence of conflict.

The role of self-concept in cross-cultural communication

Empirical evidence supports the notion that communication behaviors in intercultural encounters are effectively extensions of cultural values as well as epistemologies. Study 1 established communication behaviors of Asians and New Zealanders (NZs) as consistent with vertical collectivism and horizontal individualism, respectively. In particular, argumentativeness is positively related to independent self-construal (SC) and negatively related to interdependent SC. This supports Markus and Kitayama’s SC theory. Study 2 showed that NZs exhibited more idiocentric and argumentative behavior, while Asians displayed more sociocentric and less argumentative behavior during two actual interactions; specifically, participants diverged in their communication styles to be more consistent with their cultural values during intercultural interactions. Analyses of decision outcomes provide support that culture moderates cognitive consistency behaviors such that NZs exhibited more inconsistency-reduction behaviors, which is rooted in adherence to noncontradiction. In contrast, Asians exhibited more inconsistency-support behaviors, suggesting that naive dialecticism rooted in acceptance of contradiction is customary in Asian social interaction.

Investigating the influence of religion, ethical ideologies and generational cohorts toward consumer ethics: which one matters?

Purpose - In the debate whether ethics should be separated from religion or otherwise, few have investigated the impact of religious beliefs and ethical ideologies on consumer ethics. Thus, the purpose of this study to investigate the influence of consumers’ religion, moral philosophy and generational cohort on their perception toward various consumers’ ethical behavior practices. Design/methodology/approach - The study uses sample from three different cohorts (Generation Y, Generation X and Baby boomers) in Australia. The final numbers of respondents are 251. Male and female respondents are almost equal in number (52 and 48 per cent, respectively). Most participants are single (56 per cent), and 24 per cent are married. The age cohorts are Gen-Y (70 per cent), Gen-X (16 per cent) and Baby boomers (14 per cent). In terms of religion, 46 per cent of the respondents were identified as Christian or Catholic, whereas 42 per cent reported having no religion. Findings - The results show that religiosity had the strongest effect compared to moral ideologies and generation cohorts. It can be assumed that at least for religious consumers, when two ideas collide between religion and ethical ideologies, religious principles may supersede ethical ideologies. The study offers several implications for marketers, educators and public policy makers. Research limitations/implications - The current study has several limitations, especially the use of convenience sampling that may limit the generalizability of the findings. Consumers in Australia may behave differently from general consumers or other cohorts with regard to their ethical judgments. Originality/value - This is one of the first few studies exploring consumer ethics in Australia. We may conclude that in some ethical situations, religion will supersede ethical ideologies. Accordingly, it is important not to remove religion from ethics education, especially for religious consumers.

n-Culturals, the next cross-cultural challenge Introducing a multicultural mentoring model program

This article advances current conceptualizations of multicultural identities by identifying constituent elements of multicultural identity as knowledge, identification, internalization, and commitment. This new conceptualization is labeled n-Culturalism and posits that there are individuals who operate at the intersection of multiple cultures by maintaining salience of their multiple cultural identities. We illustrate that n-Culturals are assets to organizations because they are creative synthesizers that are able to facilitate organizational goals and can also serve as models for others who are struggling in a multicultural environment. This article provides some solutions to managing multicultural challenges in organizations, such as conflicting values and identities. It also offers solutions on how individuals and organizations can leverage their identities in relation to the multiculturalism continuum to achieve desired workplace outcomes. Further, we introduce the multicultural mentor modeling program for organizations, which, if implemented, can help struggling multiculturals to address challenges in their social cognition and to develop appropriate and effective behaviors in and outside of the workplace.

n-Culturals: modeling the multicultural identity

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to extend current conceptualizations of multicultural individuals by mapping the underlying elements of knowledge, identification, commitment and internalization as components of multicultural identity. It aims to extend discussions of how multicultural individuals manage their multiculturality. Design/methodology/approach – The paper draws primarily on extant works on multicultural individuals and identity. The paper reviews a number of concepts relevant to multicultural identity to introduce the existence of a population called n-Culturals who represent a complex type that exists on one extreme of a continuum of multicultural identity. The paper derives a theory of n-Culturalism which represents a more nuanced theory of the multicultural identity. Findings – n-Culturals recognizes that elements of multicultural identity exist within individuals to a greater or lesser extent and that their combination results in a comprehensive understanding of the entire range of m...

Double edge experiences of expatriate acculturation: Navigating through personal multiculturalism

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to bring to light the double edges faced by individuals who have international and multicultural experiences. The implication is that these individuals encounter acculturation challenges, and also gain from their multiculturality. The authors adopt Berry’s (2011) integration and multiculturalism framework to analyze the experiences and challenges that multi-culturals face. This paper suggests ways to glean the silver lining within organizations to help manage and master multicultural experiences in the workplace to benefit both individuals and organizations. Design/methodology/approach - The authors used empirical materials from expatriates who have worked across multiple cultural contexts. Based on these the authors present three examples to illustrate how expatriates and multicultural individuals place themselves in situations where they experience contact and challenges associated with adopting multiple cultures. The authors then analyze these examples to show how the experiences involve psychological-level integration challenges for Multi- and Findings - The three multicultural expatriate examples suggest that individuals with international and multicultural experiences who are successful at managing their experiences develop cognitive and behavioral complexity. However, these individuals also face continuous acculturation including cognitive and ethno-cultural identity conflicts such as, rejection from multiple cultural perspectives because they continually cross-multiple cultural microcosms. Suggestions are presented to help maintain one’s sense of self-worth and minimizing ethno-cultural conflicts. Research limitations/implications - Notwithstanding the value of analyzing the examples of expatriate acculturation experiences, the limitation to the examples is that it is limited to the experience of three individuals. However, the examples were effective in raising points to discuss relevant challenges and/or the double-edged reality faced by boundary spanners, multi-, and Practical implications - The paper presents possible ways multi- and Social implications - The paper highlights the challenges of acculturation and suggests ways that individuals can overcome these challenges. It further suggests how organizations can take advantage of such individuals by utilizing existing personnel within the organization. Originality/value - The paper is one of the few that acknowledge multiculturalism is highly challenging even for successful multi-culturals and