Andrea Beetz

Psychosocial and psychophysiological effects of human-animal interactions: the possible role of oxytocin

During the last decade it has become more widely accepted that pet ownership and animal assistance in therapy and education may have a multitude of positive effects on humans. Here, we review the evidence from 69 original studies on human-animal interactions (HAI) which met our inclusion criteria with regard to sample size, peer-review, and standard scientific research design. Among the well-documented effects of HAI in humans of different ages, with and without special medical, or mental health conditions are benefits for: social attention, social behavior, interpersonal interactions, and mood; stress-related parameters such as cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure; self-reported fear and anxiety; and mental and physical health, especially cardiovascular diseases. Limited evidence exists for positive effects of HAI on: reduction of stress-related parameters such as epinephrine and norepinephrine; improvement of immune system functioning and pain management; increased trustworthiness of and trust toward other persons; reduced aggression; enhanced empathy and improved learning. We propose that the activation of the oxytocin system plays a key role in the majority of these reported psychological and psychophysiological effects of HAI. Oxytocin and HAI effects largely overlap, as documented by research in both, humans and animals, and first studies found that HAI affects the oxytocin system. As a common underlying mechanism, the activation of the oxytocin system does not only provide an explanation, but also allows an integrative view of the different effects of HAI.

The Effect of a Real Dog, Toy Dog and Friendly Person on Insecurely Attached Children During a Stressful Task: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT The regulation of stress by an attachment figure is a key feature of attachment relationships. Previous research suggests that in some cases animal companionship may be regarded as an attachment relationship. This may be particularly important for persons with an insecure or disorganized attachment pattern who may find it more difficult than securely attached individuals to accept social support from humans. In our study, we investigated whether 31 boys (aged 7–12 years) with insecure/disorganized attachment would profit more from the presence of a dog (n = 11) than of a friendly human (n = 11) or a toy dog (n = 9) as support during a socially stressful situation (Trier Social Stress Test for Children, TSST-C). Stress levels were assessed via salivary cortisol recorded five times before, during, and after the TSST-C. The behavior of the children was coded from video recordings. Self-reported stress levels did not significantly differ between the groups before and after the TSST-C. Salivary cortisol, however, was significantly lower in the real dog condition than in the other two conditions (Kruskal-Wallis H test on area under the curve increase (AUCi): χ2 = 15.17, df = 2, p = 0.001). Also, the more the children stroked the dog, the less pronounced was their stress reaction (rs = −0.818, p = 0.002). Our data suggest an important role of physical contact in the stress reducing effect. We conclude that the children investigated profited more from interacting with a friendly dog than with either a human or a toy dog in a stressful situation. We discuss the relevance of our findings for animal-assisted interventions.

Effects of Social Support by a Dog on Stress Modulation in Male Children with Insecure Attachment

Up to 90% of children with special education needs and about 40% of children in the general population show insecure or disorganized attachment patterns, which are linked to a diminished ability to use social support by others for the regulation of stress. The aim of the study was to investigate if children with insecure-avoidant/disorganized attachment can profit more from social support by a dog compared to a friendly human during a stressful task. We investigated 47 male children (age 7–11) with insecure-avoidant or disorganized attachment. Social stress was elicited via the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C). For one group of children a friendly therapy-dog (n = 24) was present, for one control group a friendly human (n = 10) and for the other control group a toy dog (n = 13). Stress levels of the children were measured via salivary cortisol at five times (t1–t5) before, during, and after the TSST-C and subjective reports. The physiological stress response was significantly lower in the dog condition in comparison to the two other support conditions at t4, t5 and the overall stress reaction from t1 to t5 (Area Under the Curve increase; Kruskal–Wallis H-Test, pairwise post hoc comparisons via Mann–Whitney U-Tests). Cortisol levels correlated negatively (rs) with the amount of physical contact between the child and dog. We conclude that male children with insecure-avoidant or disorganized attachment profit more from the presence of a therapy-dog than of a friendly human under social stress. Our findings support the assumption that the increasing practice of animal-assisted education is reasonable and that dogs can be helpful assistants in education/special education, since stress interferes with learning and performance in students.

Dogs motivate obese children for physical activity: key elements of a motivational theory of animal-assisted interventions

Background: There is empirical evidence that the presence of a companion animal can have a positive impact on performance. The available evidence can be viewed in terms of differing hypotheses that attempt to explain the mechanisms behind the positive effects. Little attention has been given to motivation as a potential mode of action with regards to human-animal interactions. First we give an overview of evidence that animals might promote motivation. Second we present a study to examine the effect of a therapy dog on exercise performance in children with obesity. Methods: Twelve children, aged 8–12 years old, were randomly assigned to two groups in a crossover design: dog-group and human confederate group. Several types of physical activities via accelerometer and subjective ratings of wellbeing, satisfaction, and motivation were assessed. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance for repeated measures on one factor. Results: The main effect of condition was significant for all performance variables. There was less passive behavior and more physical activity for all performance variables in the presence of the dog than in that of the human confederate. Between dog- and human- condition there was no difference in the subjective rating of motivation, wellbeing, or satisfaction. Discussion: The results demonstrate that the presence of a therapy dog has the potential to increase physical activity in obese children. Task performance as a declarative measure was increased by the presence of the dog in comparison to a human confederate, but self-report measures of motivation, satisfaction or wellbeing did not differ between the two conditions. Therefore, it stands to reason that a dog could trigger implicit motives which enhance motivation for activity. The results of our study indicate the potentially beneficial effect of incorporating dogs into outpatient training for obese children.

Socio-emotional correlates of a schooldog-teacher-team in the classroom

A growing number of teachers in Europe regularly take their dogs with them into the classroom. Limited research points at positive socio-emotional effects of this practice. In this study the effects of a schooldog-teacher-team on socioemotional experiences in school, depression and emotion regulation strategies were investigated in a classroom of third-graders (male n = 12, female n = 13), which had a schooldog present for 1 day per week in comparison with a control class (male n = 11, female n = 10). In contrast to the control class, the dog-class students reported a stronger improvement with regard to positive attitude toward school (repeated measures ANOVA; F = 10.769, df = 1, p = 0.002) and positive emotions related to learning (F = 4.479, df = 1, p = 0.042) over the course of the year. Since a prerequisite of all kinds of effective learning is a positive attitude and mood toward school and learning, the presence of a schooldog-teacher team thus has the potential to support learning.

Theories and possible processes of action in animal assisted interventions

ABSTRACT Different positive effects of interactions with animals, such as reduction of stress reactions, depressive mood, anxiety, aggression, and pain, and promotion of trust, calmness, motivation, and concentration have been documented by research on human–animal interaction (HAI), including animal assisted interventions (AAIs). Potential biological, psychological, and social processes may underpin these effects. Theories of why this may occur include biophilia, anthropomorphism, a focus on the experiential system instead of the verbal-symbolic system, motivation, activation of the oxytocin system, attachment and caregiving including provision of social support for stress buffering, and distraction processes. Understanding how animals may positively affect educational and therapeutic settings, in particular for individuals with psychical and psychosocial challenges, and finding what special indications for AAI exist, and which preconditions of learning in the client or the setting could potentially be enhanced, might provide not only a better rationale for AAIs but also promote their efficacy.

Children with Avoidant or Disorganized Attachment Relate Differently to a Dog and to Humans During a Socially Stressful Situation

ABSTRACT Human attachment representations are shaped in interaction with the primary caregiver and are generally transferred to further bonding/ social partners later in life. According to previous evidence, primary attachment representations acquired with humans do not seem to be transferred to companion animals. This was held as a major factor why such animals would effectively provide social support also to persons with insecure attachment. The aim of this study in 19 male children, 7–11 years of age and with insecure-avoidant or disorganized attachment, was to investigate differences in their social behavior and in physiological responses when socially supported by an unfamiliar therapy dog in a socially stressful situation. The Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C) was conducted to elicit stress in the children when in the presence of the dog and a female human investigator. We found that boys with disorganized attachment (n=11) communicated more intensely than avoidantly attached boys (n=8) with both the dog and humans present. Boys with a disorganized attachment had more physical contact with the dog during the TSST-C and talked more to the dog during and after the TSST-C than did boys with an insecure-avoidant attachment. While the prevailing wisdom holds that attachment representations acquired with the primary human caregiver would not transfer to companion animals, our data indicate otherwise. At least components of attachment-related interaction styles, such as degree of contact seeking in verbal and tactile interactions are also displayed in interaction with animal partners.

A Comparison of Equine-Assisted Intervention and Conventional Play-Based Early Intervention for Mother-Child Dyads with Insecure Attachment.

Early interventions aim at promoting a good mother–child relationship as basis for a good socio-emotional development, especially in high-risk populations, and at correcting already unfavorable patterns of interaction and are common today. Insecure attachment, both of the child and of the mother, has been identified as a risk factor for early regulation disorders and further child development. Based on accumulating evidence of effectiveness of animal-assisted interventions, we implemented an Equine-Assisted Intervention (EAI) as an early intervention approach for mother–child-dyads and investigated its effects in comparison to a conventional play-based early intervention (PBI) in a randomized controlled trial. Both interventions took place once a week for 45 minutes over a period of 8 weeks and aimed at improving maternal caregiving and security in the mother–child relationship. Twenty mother–child dyads (children aged 12 to 24 months) from a high-risk background, in some of which the child already displayed dysregulation symptoms, were investigated. Attachment of mother and child, maternal caregiving, and interaction within the dyad were assessed before and after the intervention. There was not statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between intervention groups with regard to changes from insecure to secure attachment or from disorganized to organized attachment, assessed via the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test. The only significant group-difference with regard to self-reported caregiving, was found for proximity maintenance in mothers without previous therapy experience (n = 8), those in the EAI reaching higher scores (p = 0.064). Play interaction, assessed via the CARE-Index, showed that mothers and children in PBI improved significantly more in their interaction behavior on several scales, while child’s difficultness only significantly improved in EAI. Overall both approaches led to significant improvements in mother–child relationship and interaction, both having specific advantages over the other. When given the choice, the majority of mothers would prefer EAI, which points to a potential motivational effect.

Enhancing Special Education Environments with Animal-Assisted Interventions at Green Chimneys: Opportunities and Practical Considerations

In 2013 Green Chimneys was visited by groups of human service professionals and students from Japan, Germany, and Austria and more than 100 individual professionals wanting to observe our human animal interaction programs and to learn “how we do what we do” with children and animals in a residential treatment setting and special education day school in order to replicate aspects of our program. Many of these guests were looking for guidance and were seeking specific advice on how to justify, conceive, and implement animal-assisted interventions (AAI) and animal-assisted (AAA) activities in a special education environment. Many had questions on how to convince school administrators of the merit that this work offers and how to integrate animals into existing schools or special education programs. While the Green Chimneys model can offer unique insights and decades long experience, our program exists within the context of the United States and evolved as a nongovernmental school in a unique and very personal fashion since 1947. It would be difficult to replicate this program in exactly the same way. But the Green Chimneys experience has wide appeal and broad application. It could serve as a national, even a global, model for best practice reform of education starting with the very young. This chapter intends to serve as an overview and tool for those interested in applying AAI in the context of special education for children. We will focus on applied research evidence relevant to this area, provide a description of the Green Chimneys animal-assisted intervention programs, show how this approach complements traditional educational goals, and offer practical considerations gained at Green Chimneys that may provide helpful guidance to others considering AAI in special education environments for children and youth.

Caregiver Reports of Interactions between Children up to 6 Years and Their Family Dog—Implications for Dog Bite Prevention

In children up to 6 years, interactions such as interfering with the dog’s resources and also benign behaviors (e.g., petting) commonly precede a bite incident with the family dog. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore the development of everyday interactions between children up to 6 years and their family dogs and whether parents’ attitudes to supervision are related to those interactions. Additionally, we investigated whether behavior of dogs that had lived in the family for longer than the child differed from those that grew up with children. A self-selected sample of caregivers living with a child up to 6 years and a family dog was surveyed via an online questionnaire (N = 402). Frequency of observed child behaviors directed toward the dog and dog behaviors directed toward the child were scored on a six-point scale (1—never and 6—very often). Data on characteristics of the caregiver, the child, and the dog were collected, and a section surveying attitudes to supervision of child–dog interactions was included. Additionally, we asked whether the dog already injured the child. Benign child behaviors toward dogs were most frequently reported (mean ± SD: 4.1 ± 1.2), increased with child age (rs = 0.38, p < 0.001), and reached high levels from 6 months on. Overall, resource-related interactions were relatively infrequent (2.1 ± 1.1). Most common was the dog allowing the child to take objects from its mouth (4.1 ± 1.7). This behavior was more common with older children (rs = 0.37, p < 0.001). Reported injuries during resource-related interactions occurred while feeding treats or taking objects from the dog during fetch play. Dogs that had lived in the family for longer than the child showed less affiliative behaviors toward the child (e.g., energetic affiliative: U = −7.171, p < 0.001) and more fear-related behaviors (U = −3.581, p < 0.001). Finally, the caregivers’ attitudes to supervision were related to all child behaviors (e.g., allow unsafe behaviors—benign child behavior: rs = 0.47, p < 0.001). The results of this study underline the need for a dog bite prevention approach directed toward the caregivers very early in the child–dog relationship, taking into account the child’s age and individual needs of the dog.