Andrea Cantelli

A computational analysis of the insertion of carbon nanotubes into cellular membranes

Carbon nanotubes have been proposed to serve as nano-vehicles to deliver genetic or therapeutic material into the interior of cells because of their capacity to cross the cell membrane. A detailed picture of the molecular mode of action of such a delivery is, however, difficult to obtain because of the concealing effects of the cell membrane. Here we report a systematic computational study of membrane insertion of individual carbon nanotubes and carbon nanotube bundles using two entirely different and unrelated techniques. First a static scan of the environmental free energy is carried out based on a membrane mimicry approach and different insertion geometries are assessed. Then the dynamics is investigated with a coarse-grained approach that was previously used in the study of the integration dynamics of nanoparticles into the bilayer. The results of both models point, for unfunctionalized carbon nanotubes, at a preference for the horizontal orientation inside the internal hydrophobic layer of the cell membrane. Finally, the energetics of the formation of bundles of carbon nanotubes is studied. The cellular membrane promotes aggregation of carbon nanotubes in its hydrophobic core and modifies the structural stability of the bundles.

Ultra-bright and stimuli-responsive fluorescent nanoparticles for bioimaging.

Fluorescent nanoparticles (NPs) are unique contrast agents for bioimaging. Examples of molecular-based fluorescent NPs with brightness similar or superior to semiconductor quantum dots have been reported. These ultra-bright NPs consist of a silica or polymeric matrix that incorporate the emitting dyes as individual moieties or aggregates and promise to be more biocompatible than semiconductor quantum dots. Ultra-bright materials result from heavy doping of the structural matrix, a condition that entails a close mutual proximity of the doping dyes. Ground state and excited state interactions between the molecular emitters yield aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) and proximity-caused quenching (PCQ). In combination with Föster resonance energy transfer (FRET) ACQ and PCQ originate collective phenomena that produce amplified quenching of the nanoprobes. In this focus article, we discuss strategies to achieve ultra-bright nanoprobes avoiding ACQ and PCQ also exploiting aggregation-induced emission (AIE). Amplified quenching, on the other hand, is also proposed as a strategy to design stimuli-responsive fluorogenic probes through disaggregation-induced emission (DIE) in alternative to AIE. As an advantage, DIE consents to design stimuli-responsive materials starting from a large variety of precursors. On the contrary, AIE is characteristic of a limited number of species. Examples of stimuli-responsive fluorogenic probes based on DIE are discussed.

Photoswitchable NIR‐Emitting Gold Nanoparticles

Photo-switching of the NIR emission of gold nanoparticles (GNP) upon photo-isomerization of azobenzene ligands, bound to the surface, is demonstrated. Photophysical results confirm the occurrence of an excitation energy transfer process from the ligands to the GNP that produces sensitized NIR emission. Because of this process, the excitation efficiency of the gold core, upon excitation of the ligands, is much higher for the trans form than for the cis one, and t→c photo-isomerization causes a relevant decrease of the GNP NIR emission. As a consequence, photo-isomerization can be monitored by ratiometric detection of the NIR emission upon dual excitation. The photo-isomerization process was followed in real-time through the simultaneous detection of absorbance and luminescence changes using a dedicated setup. Surprisingly, the photo-isomerization rate of the ligands, bound to the GNP surface, was the same as measured for the chromophores in solution. This outcome demonstrated that excitation energy transfer to gold assists photo-isomerization, rather than competing with it. These results pave the road to the development of new, NIR-emitting, stimuli-responsive nanomaterials for theranostics.

C60@lysozyme: a new photosensitizing agent for photodynamic therapy

C60@lysozyme showed significant visible light-induced singlet oxygen generation in water, indicating the potential of this hybrid as an agent for photodynamic therapy. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration generated by C60@lysozyme during irradiation depends on the light source, the irradiation time and the concentration of the hybrid. C60@lysozyme significantly reduced the HeLa cell viability in response to visible light irradiation. The generation of H2O2, due to the photoactivity of C60@lysozyme, causes cell death via easy permeation of hydrogen peroxide through the cell membrane and activation of endogenous ROS production.

C60 Bioconjugation with Proteins: Towards a Palette of Carriers for All pH Ranges

The high hydrophobicity of fullerenes and the resulting formation of aggregates in aqueous solutions hamper the possibility of their exploitation in many technological applications. Noncovalent bioconjugation of fullerenes with proteins is an emerging approach for their dispersion in aqueous media. Contrary to covalent functionalization, bioconjugation preserves the physicochemical properties of the carbon nanostructure. The unique photophysical and photochemical properties of fullerenes are then fully accessible for applications in nanomedicine, sensoristic, biocatalysis and materials science fields. However, proteins are not universal carriers. Their stability depends on the biological conditions for which they have evolved. Here we present two model systems based on pepsin and trypsin. These proteins have opposite net charge at physiological pH. They recognize and disperse C60 in water. UV-Vis spectroscopy, zeta-potential and atomic force microscopy analysis demonstrates that the hybrids are well dispersed and stable in a wide range of pH’s and ionic strengths. A previously validated modelling approach identifies the protein-binding pocket involved in the interaction with C60. Computational predictions, combined with experimental investigations, provide powerful tools to design tailor-made C60@proteins bioconjugates for specific applications.

Proteins as supramolecular hosts for C60: a true solution of C60 in water

Hybrid systems have great potential for a wide range of applications in chemistry, physics and materials science. Conjugation of a biosystem to a molecular material can tune the properties of the components or give rise to new properties. As a workhorse, here we take a C60@lysozyme hybrid. We show that lysozyme recognizes and disperses fullerene in water. AFM, cryo-TEM and high resolution X-ray powder diffraction show that the C60 dispersion is monomolecular. The adduct is biocompatible, stable in physiological and technologically-relevant environments, and easy to store. Hybridization with lysozyme preserves the electrochemical properties of C60. EPR spin-trapping experiments show that the C60@lysozyme hybrid produces ROS following both type I and type II mechanisms. Due to the shielding effect of proteins, the adduct generates significant amounts of 1O2 also in aqueous solution. In the case of type I mechanism, the protein residues provide electrons and the hybrid does not require addition of external electron donors. The preparation process and the properties of C60@lysozyme are general and can be expected to be similar to other C60@protein systems. It is envisaged that the properties of the C60@protein hybrids will pave the way for a host of applications in nanomedicine, nanotechnology, and photocatalysis.