Andrea J. Farwell

Reproductive and stress hormone levels in goldfish (Carassius auratus) exposed to oil sands process-affected water

Athabasca oil sands mining in northern Alberta produces process-affected waters that are characterized by the presence of naphthenic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and high salinity. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of these process-affected waters on reproductive and stress related endpoints in mature goldfish, Carassius auratus. In two separate studies, testosterone and 17beta-estradiol levels in the plasma were significantly reduced in both male and female goldfish caged for 19 days in process-affected waters relative to controls. This effect was most pronounced in goldfish caged at a site containing mature fine tailing and tailings pond water (P5). Ovarian and testicular tissues from fish in the caging studies were incubated in vitro to evaluate potential differences in basal steroid production levels and responsiveness to human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Basal levels of testosterone were reduced significantly in males and females from P5 compared with the control pond (P1) demonstrating that the gonads from exposed fish had a diminished steroidogenic capacity. Gonadal tissues of fish from all ponds responded similarly to hCG suggesting that the steroid biosynthetic pathway remained functionally intact. Plasma cortisol levels were significantly higher in male goldfish caged in a pond containing mature fine tailings and capped with uncontaminated water (P3) and in P5 compared with P1. Collectively, these studies suggest that waste products of oil sands mining have the potential to disrupt the normal endocrine functioning in exposed fish through alterations to both reproductive and glucocorticoid hormone biosynthesis. In additional laboratory studies, exposure of goldfish to a naphthenic acid extract for 7 days failed to replicate the effects of processes-affected waters on plasma steroid levels and the causative agent(s) responsible for the effects on steroid biosynthesis remains to be identified.

Has Alberta oil sands development altered delivery of polycyclic aromatic compounds to the Peace-Athabasca Delta?

Background The extent to which Alberta oil sands mining and upgrading operations have enhanced delivery of bitumen-derived contaminants via the Athabasca River and atmosphere to the Peace-Athabasca Delta (200 km to the north) is a pivotal question that has generated national and international concern. Accounts of rare health disorders in residents of Fort Chipewyan and deformed fish in downstream ecosystems provided impetus for several recent expert-panel assessments regarding the societal and environmental consequences of this multi-billion-dollar industry. Deciphering relative contributions of natural versus industrial processes on downstream supply of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) has been identified as a critical knowledge gap. But, this remains a formidable scientific challenge because loading from natural processes remains unknown. And, industrial activity occurs in the same locations as the natural bitumen deposits, which potentially confounds contemporary upstream-downstream comparisons of contaminant levels. Methods/Principal Findings Based on analyses of lake sediment cores, we provide evidence that the Athabasca Delta has been a natural repository of PACs carried by the Athabasca River for at least the past two centuries. We detect no measureable increase in the concentration and proportion of river-transported bitumen-associated indicator PACs in sediments deposited in a flood-prone lake since onset of oil sands development. Results also reveal no evidence that industrial activity has contributed measurably to sedimentary concentration of PACs supplied by atmospheric transport. Conclusions/Significance Findings suggest that natural erosion of exposed bitumen in banks of the Athabasca River and its tributaries is a major process delivering PACs to the Athabasca Delta, and the spring freshet is a key period for contaminant mobilization and transport. This baseline environmental information is essential for informed management of natural resources and human-health concerns by provincial and federal regulatory agencies and industry, and for designing effective long-term monitoring programs for the lower Athabasca River watershed.

The use of transgenic canola (Brassica napus) and plant growth-promoting bacteria to enhance plant biomass at a nickel-contaminated field site

The applicability of transgenic plants and plant growth-promoting bacteria to improve plant biomass accumulation as a phytoremediation strategy at a nickel (Ni)-contaminated field site was examined. Two crops of 4-day old non-transformed and transgenic canola (Brassica napus) seedlings in the presence and absence of Pseudomonas putida strain UW4 (crop #1) or P. putida strain HS-2 (crop #1 and 2) were transplanted at a Ni-contaminated field site in 2005. Overall, transgenic canola had increased growth but decreased shoot Ni concentrations compared to non-transformed canola, resulting in similar total Ni per plant. Under optimal growth conditions (crop #2), the addition of P. putida HS-2 significantly enhanced growth for non-transformed canola. Canola with P. putida HS-2 had trends of higher total Ni per plant than canola without P. putida HS-2, indicating the potential usefulness of this bacterium in phytoremediation strategies. Modifications to the planting methods may be required to increase plant Ni uptake.

Has Alberta oil sands development increased far-field delivery of airborne contaminants to the Peace–Athabasca Delta?

Identifying potential regional contamination by Alberta oil sands industrial emissions on sensitive ecosystems like the Peace-Athabasca Delta, ~200 km to the north, requires knowledge of historical contaminant levels and trends. Here we provide some of these critically-needed data, based on analysis of metals in a sediment core from an upland precipitation-fed lake in the delta. The lake is well-situated to record the anthropogenic history of airborne contaminant deposition for this region. Sediment records of metals of concern (Pb, Sb, As, Hg) reflect early to mid-20th century increases in North American industrial emissions, followed by reduced emissions due to improved industrial practices after 1950-70. Notably, Pb, Sb, As and Hg have declined since the onset of Alberta oil sands production, belying concerns that this activity has enhanced far-field atmospheric delivery of these contaminants to the delta.

The Use of Stable Isotopes (13C/12C and 15N/14N) to Trace Exposure to Oil Sands Processed Material in the Alberta Oil Sands Region

Various oil sands reclamation strategies incorporate oil sands processed material (OSPM) such as mature fine tailings (MFT), engineered tailings (consolidated tailings, CT), and tailings pond water (TPW) into reclamation components that need to develop into viable aquatic ecosystems. The OSPM will contain elevated salinity and organics such as naphthenic acids (NA) and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAC) that can be chronically toxic to aquatic organisms depending upon levels and age. Due to the complexity of the chemical mixtures, analysis of these compounds in exposed organisms can be challenging. In this study, the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope signatures of selected invertebrates from various types of oil sands reclamation sites were analyzed to determine whether stable isotopes can be used to trace the exposure of aquatic organisms to organic constituents of OSPM. In a series of experimental reclamation ponds of similar age and size, there were trends of 13C depletion and 15N enrichment for benthic invertebrates along a gradient of increased levels of MFT and/or TPW. A survey of 16 sites revealed high δ15N values for invertebrates in aquatic systems containing MFT and CT (gypsum-treated mixes of MFT and tailings sand), which was attributed to the presence of NH4 +, a process by-product in OSPM. Findings of this study indicate a potential for the use of stable nitrogen isotopes to define exposure of biota to OSPM during environmental effects monitoring programs both in surface waters and in cases where groundwater seepage containing oil sands processed water enters surface receiving environments in the region.

Use of pre-industrial floodplain lake sediments to establish baseline river metal concentrations downstream of Alberta oil sands: a new approach for detecting pollution of rivers

In the Alberta oil sands region, insufficient knowledge of pre-disturbance reference conditions has undermined the ability of the Regional Aquatics Monitoring Program (RAMP) to detect pollution of the Athabasca River, because sampling began three decades after the industry started and the river naturally erodes oil-bearing strata. Here, we apply a novel approach to characterize pre-industrial reference metal concentrations in river sediment downstream of Alberta oil sands development by analyzing metal concentrations in sediments deposited in floodplain lakes of the Athabasca Delta during 1700–1916, when they were strongly influenced by Athabasca River floodwaters. We compared results to metal concentrations in surficial bottom sediments sampled by RAMP (2010–2013) at downstream sites of the Athabasca River and distributaries. When normalized to lithium content, concentrations of vanadium (a metal of concern in the oil sands region) and other priority pollutants (Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn) in nearly all of the RAMP river sediment samples lie below the upper 95% prediction interval linearly extrapolated from the river-derived lake sediments. Assuming the RAMP protocols obtained recently deposited sediment, this indicates that the metal concentrations in downstream Athabasca River sediment have not increased above pre-disturbance levels. Reference conditions derived from the lake sediment data were used to develop profiles of metal residual concentrations versus time for the RAMP river sediment data, which provides an excellent tool for decision-makers to identify and quantify levels of metal pollution for any given sample, and to monitor for future trends. We recommend that the approach be applied to resurrect the utility of RAMP data at other river sampling locations closer to the development, and for ongoing risk assessment. The approach is also readily transferable to other rivers where insufficient pre-disturbance reference data impairs

Phototoxicity of oil sands–derived polycyclic aromatic compounds to japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos

Alkylated polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs), which are rich in dibenzothiophenes, are present in natural and reclaimed aquatic environments in the oil sands region of northern Alberta (Canada). An oil sands-derived PAC extract has been shown to induce signs of blue sac disease in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos. Information regarding exposure to and effects of oil sands PACs is available, but little of this information concerns the impact of modifying factors. The present study focuses on the effect of simulated solar radiation on oil sands-derived PAC toxicity to Japanese medaka embryos. Photomodification of the oil sands PAC extract caused reduced toxicity with an increase in the duration of ultraviolet (UV) exposure. Generally, mortality and developmental endpoints and, to a lesser extent, growth were affected by photomodification. Coexposures of the PAC mixture and UV caused slight increases in toxicity for mortality and embryonic developmental endpoints at the longest duration of UV exposure tested (16 h). Based on the modest phototoxicity of the oil sands PAC extract to Japanese medaka embryos, enhanced toxicity associated with UV irradiation may not be a concern for embryos of fish species that are common to the oil sands region. However, testing the effects of differing levels of UV irradiation on larval fish and invertebrates that may differ in their PAC bioaccumulation would improve our understanding concerning the importance of UV irradiation as a modifying factor in oil sands environmental risk assessment.

Toxicity of oil sands acid-extractable organic fractions to freshwater fish: Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) and Oryzias latipes (Japanese medaka)

The Alberta oil sands are one of the largest global petroleum deposits and, due to non-release practices for oil sands process-affected waters, produced tailings are stored in large ponds. The acid extractable organic (AEO) compounds in oil sands process-affected water are of greatest concern due to their persistence and toxicity to a variety of aquatic biota. The present study evaluated the toxicity of the five AEO fractions to two fish species: Oryzias latipes (Japanese medaka) and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow). The fractions (F1-F5) were comprised of AEO with increasing mean molecular weight and subsequent increases in cyclicity, aromaticity, degree of oxygenation, and heteroatom content. The lowest molecular weight fraction, F1, displayed the lowest acute toxicity to both fish species. For fathead minnow, F5 displayed the greatest toxic potency, while F2 to F4 displayed intermediate toxicities. For Japanese medaka, F2 and F3 displayed the greatest acute toxicities and F1, F4 and F5 were significantly less potent. Overall, fathead minnow were more acutely sensitive to AEO than Japanese medaka. The present study indicates that AEO toxicity may not be solely driven by a narcotic mode of action, but chemical composition such as aromaticity and heteroatom content and their relation to toxicity suggest other drivers indicative of additional modes of toxic action.

Stable Nitrogen Isotopes of Nestling Tree Swallows Indicate Exposure to Different Types of Oil Sands Reclamation

Tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) inhabiting reclaimed wetlands on the oil sands in northern Alberta are potentially exposed to elevated levels of oil sands constituents such as polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAC) through diet. While increased detoxification enzyme activity as measured using 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase in nestlings is a generally accepted indicator of exposure to oil sands constituents, there is no apparent method to detect dietary exposure specific to oil sands processed material (OSPM). In this study, stable C and N isotopes were analyzed from muscle and feathers of nestling tree swallows (15 d old) to distinguish dietary exposure of birds near reference and OSPM wetlands. High δ15N and low δ13C values in the nestling tissues differentiated those from the OSPM wetlands and reference sites. Lower δ15N values of nestlings compared to the δ15N values of larval chironomids from an earlier study suggested that the majority of the diet of the nestlings was derived from non-OSPM sources, despite residence near and on the OSPM wetlands. Our finding of limited utilization of OSPM resources by tree swallows indicates either low abundance or diversity of dietary items emerging from OSPM wetlands, or sensory avoidance of prey from those wetlands. Minimal consumption of OSPM-derived dietary sources may be attributed to published findings of limited adverse effects on tree swallow reproduction, or growth and development for these same nestlings. This study demonstrated that stable isotope analysis, particularly for N isotopes, may serve as a useful tool to trace dietary exposure to OSPM constituents as part of avian ecotoxicology assessments of reclaimed wetlands on the oil sands.

Factors Influencing Stable Isotopes and Growth of Algae in Oil Sands Aquatic Reclamation

Previous studies reported 15N enrichment of biota in reclamation wetlands that contain oil sands processed material (e.g., processed water and tailings); however, there is little information on the factors controlling 15N enrichment in these systems. In this microcosm study, the aim was to examine stable C and N isotopes and growth (chlorophyll a [chl a] and dry weight) of algae as a function of exposure to different sources and concentrations of water-soluble fractions (WSF) derived from tailings. Two sources of tailings including mature fine tailings (MFT) and consolidated tailings (CT) and peat-mineral overburden were utilized to generate separate WSF that differed in water quality. In general, there was 15N enrichment of filamentous algae along the increasing gradient of WSF/nutrient concentrations in both CT and peat microcosms, and among the different sources, algae were more 15N enriched in CT WSF than in peat WSF. Growth of filamentous algae was inhibited at higher WSF concentrations, possibly due to reduced light availability at elevated levels of fine clay particles in MFT microcosms and colored dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in peat microcosms. Filamentous algae displayed lower biomass and 15N depletion in 100% peat WSF. This study indicated that both the quality (source) and quantity of WSF affected algal growth and directly and/or indirectly influenced δ15N of algae. The distinct 15N enrichment of primary producers derived from tailings suggest that stable N isotopes might be useful to trace exposure to oil sands processed material in biota that utilize these resources in reclaimed systems constructed with tailings or natural systems that receive tailings dyke seepage.