Andrei Enea

Vegetation and Fauna

The chapter concerning the vegetation and fauna of the Red Lake (except for the wetlands) is based upon data taken from the scientific literature. From this perspective, the ecologic succession of the lacustrine system may be divided into three phases: open water with an oligotrophic lake regime; invasion of the lake with aquatic macrophytes, with an oligotrophic-mesotrophic lake regime; and, in the end, mesotrophic; senescence, with a mesotrophic-eutrophic lake regime (Ghenciu Trăsături hidrofizice, hidrochimice si hidrobiologice ale Lacului Rosu, 1972). The vegetation within the hydrographic basin is dominated by pine forests: spruce (Picea excelsa); silver fir (Abies alba); white pine (Pinus silvestri); larch (Larix decidua), etc. On the mountain pastures and on the alpine empty crests, graminaceous plants are predominant: red fescue (Festuca rubra); matgrass (Nardus stricta); rosy vanilla orchid (Nigritella rubra) etc., while hydrophyte and helophyte vegetation is present through the following associations: Carocetum inflatovesicariae; Caricetum appropinquatae; Equisetum limosi etc. The fauna of the hydrographic basin comprises a great variety of species, many of them rare and protected. Among the mammals the following should be mentioned: the brown bear (Ursus arctos); the common wild boar (Sus scrofa); the red Carpathian deer (Cervus elaphus carpaticus); the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus); the wolf (Canis lupus); the lynx (Felis lynx); the wildcat (Felis silvestris); the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), etc. The fish fauna is specific to the upper salmon area. As it contains dry residue, organic substance, nitrates, phenols, etc., the water provides satisfying conditions for the fish culture.

Limnology of the Red Lake, Romania

Limnology is one of the most important disciplines of hydrology. It studies inland waters and all other standing waters (natural or artificial), including hydrologic phenomena, physical or chemical, in relation to the environment (chemism, thermals, dynamics, development capabilities of the flora and fauna associations, etc.), as well as the way they are valorized by man. From a historical point of view, limnology is only approximately one century old and the founder of limnology is considered to be François A. Forel from the University of Lausanne (Switzerland). It is very important to make a clear distinction between similar terms, such as ‘‘lake’’ and ‘‘pool’’ and define a clear terminology. Out of the grand total of 1 million lakes, distributed all around the world, in Romania, there are currently about 3,450 lakes. There are many types of lakes and numerous classifications are based on several factors, such as: the origin of the lacustrine basin, hydric regime, thermal regime, mineralization degree, trophic potential, geographic position, nature (natural vs. anthropic). The anthropic category is devised into smaller types, depending on the size (the amount of the water reservoir), or on the purpose (hydro-energetic, drinking or industrial water supply, irrigations, pisciculture, recreation, balneotherapeutic, residue cleaning, wet concentration, etc.). The Red Lake is a natural dam lake, which was formed after a huge landslide blocked the Bicaz Valley in 1837. Here, the objective is emblematic, because it is the most well-known natural barrage lake in Romania. 1.1 Concept and Definition Limnology is the science that studies inland waters and all other standing waters (natural or artificial), including hydrologic phenomena, physical or chemical, in relation to the environment (chemism, thermals, dynamics, development capabilities of the flora and fauna associations, etc.), as well as the way they are valorized by man. G. Romanescu et al., Limnology of the Red Lake, Romania, DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6757-7_1, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013 1 The word ‘‘limnology’’ comes from the Greek limne = lake. In the category of lacustrine waters are included lakes, ponds and mires. More recently, wetlands have also been included in this category. Through its subject, limnology is a border discipline between geography and biology. It belongs to geography because it studies depressions and the way they were formed; it studies water, with all its characteristics (physical, chemical and dynamics), meaning the biotype—this sub-branch is called physical limnology. It also belongs to biology because it studies the flora and fauna of stagnant waters (biohydrocenosis)—this branch is called biological limnology. As the biotope and biohydrocenosis within a lake form a whole, standing waters in general represent the most typical systems in nature; they may also be called limno-systems (Hutchinson 1957; Dussart 1966, 1992; Gâs tescu 1979). ‘‘Lakes, moreover, form more or less closed systems, so that they provide a series of varying possible ecologic worlds which permit a truly comparative approach to the mechanisms of nature’’ (Hutchinson 1957). The American biologist Forbes (1887) compares the lake with a microcosm—hence the importance of lake studies to reveal the geographic evolution of an area. In a broader perspective, limnology is ‘‘the interdisciplinary science which studies water basins with slow water exchange—natural or artificial—historically, meaning dynamically in time and regionally in space, the current physical and biotic process, on the grounds of energy and matter transformation within the water body. It also studies the laws of their evolution and geographic status, their natural resources, and possibility of use by mankind’’ (Gâs tescu 1971). 1.2 Limnological History The Swiss naturalist and professor of medicine, François A. Forel, at the University of Lausanne (Switzerland) (1841–1912) is considered to be the founder of limnology. His first study was ‘‘Matériaux pour servir à l’étude de la faune profonde du lac Léman’’ (1869). The founding book of limnology is ‘‘Le Léman: Monographie limnologique,’’ Lausanne, (1892, 1895, 1904) (3 volumes). Murray (1900) introduces a methodology specific to oceanography and hydrology in his exhaustive research regarding Scottish lakes. Halbfass (1903, 1923) published his treatise on the geography, physics and chemistry of lakes (Berlin), a true basis for modern limnology. Thienemann (1925, 1926) is the first to have studied the insects of streams; he is the most important representative of European limnology (Arlinghaus et al. 2008). For better organization, on 1st January, 1922, in Kiel (Germany), Thieneman August and Nauman Einar founded the International Society of Limnology (S.I.L.—Societas Internationalis Limnologiae). It comprised 103 specialists from various countries. The first systematic observations on the lakes in our country truly appeared after 1950. For this organized start, the following geographers should be 2 1 Definition of Lakes and Their Position in the Romanian Territory

EVALUATION OF THE PROPAGATION TIME OF A THEORETHICAL FLOOD WAVE IN THE CASE OF THE BREAKING OF CATAMARASTI DAM, BOTOSANI (ROMANIA)

Storage lakes represent an important source of water for the areas with a high deficit of hydrologic balance (ex: Moldavian Plain from NE of Romania). This region holds an important number of lakes that allow the storage of water during periods with rainfall shortage. At the same time, they play an important role in the protection of localities against floods. In addition to the benefits that these lakes have, they can also represent a risk factor for the localities situated in the downstream region, in case of dam collapse. In Romania it is widely known the catastrophic event from 1991 when Belci Dam situated on Tazlău River was breached, causing an entire neighborhood from Onesti City to be flooded. The present study focuses on Catamarasti Lake which has a maximum water volume of 12 million cubic meters, the dam being located 3 km upstream of the first locality and the periphery of Botosani City. The proximity of the inhabited areas makes the dam break scenario to be a probable event, therefore the identification of the propagation time of a possible flood wave is essential towards the creation of a system for the protection of the population. The dam break simulation and the quantification of the propagation time of the entire water volume on Sitna river valley is made using HECRAS, based on a LiDAR digital elevation model, using the 2D simulation method. In this case, having a likely floodable surface as well as the time in which the flood can reach the nearby localities, there were identified the risk exposed households located in the floodplain, in the vicinity of the river.

COMPARATIVE, MULTI-PARAMETER MODELLING, AT A BASINAL AND SUB-BASINAL LEVEL, FOR FLOOD VULNERABILITY, IN TECUCEL WATERSHED

Of all phenomena which lead, through their manifestation, to material damage and loss of human lives, floods are the most devastating. They present a high degree of danger, both in frequency and intensity, but also by the high value of the damage produced. Romania has faced numerous floods in the past decades, of which the ones that took place in the Eastern region are of most significance in Siret watershed and Prut-Barlad river basins. To prioritize the interventions, the deployment of forces, as well as funds for flood defenses, first the zones and the sub-basins which are the most vulnerable must be identified. The purpose of this work is to develop an analysis at a sub-basinal level, which will take into consideration the most important morphometric parameters that are influencing floods, to obtain a comparative, relevant and understandable result, in order to achieve several cartographic materials that are easy to interpret and present to the authorities capable to intervene in such situations. The proposed model can be applied to any hydrographic basin that has a sufficiently detailed digital elevation model (DEM), in order to generate significant results.

GEOMORPHOLOGIC RISK ASSESSMENT IN TECUCEL DRAINAGE BASIN, USING GIS TECHNIQUES

This paper aims to use a multi-parameter method for estimating the geomorphologic risk, in Tecucel drainage basin, Romania. It is located in the South-Eastern region of the country, and it is an tributary of Barlad river, draining important inhabited areas. The population is predominantly rural and mostly based on agricultural activities, therefore the farmlands are extremely important in their lives, the geomorphologic risk leading to potential reduction of arable land, which ensures the very existence of the inhabitants. The evaluation for this type of risk implies the analysis of several morphometrical parameters, out of which the most important are slope, land use, surface curvature, soil etc. The main morphometrical layers are generated from a terrain model, derived from Lidar data. This method includes the classification of each parameter, according to a riskbased logic. Therefore, high values of each parameter will be associated with landslide prone areas. The following process is the combination of all the layers into a final layer, using a geoformula, which will be implemented in GIS software. Among the results, the most relevant is considered to be a map revealing all the risk prone areas, including the overlapping villages. Based on this map, a statistical analysis will be performed, revealing the estimated built-up areas that are prone to be affected, as well as farmland. This proposed approach, which uses GIS techniques to map the geomorphologic risk, is useful to emphasize the potential danger associated to landslides, gully erosion and their direct effect on the human activities.

SUITABILITY ANALYSIS FOR BUILDING DAM LAKES IN THE ORIENTAL CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA. CASE STUDY: TROTUS RIVER BASIN

This paper aims to analyze the suitability of Trotus river drainage basin, for building dam lakes. At present, water demand is a rising, global issue. There are numerous studies concerning water supply in different regions, as well as solutions for areas associated with water level decrease. Numerous economical sectors imply the use of water (agriculture, industry, tourism, food industry etc), therefore the analysis of areas where potential, new, artificial dam lakes can be built, is mandatory. There are numerous factors that engineers have to take into consideration, when building a dam for an artificial lake. Some of the most important parameters are land use, geology, soil and inhabited areas. For this study, these parameters have been combined into a multi-layer based GIS analysis, in which each layer has different values corresponding to the suitability of the elements contained on that layer, to the dam building purpose. The main results reveal a classified version of a suitability report, depicting the best areas for building a dam lake, in Trotus drainage basin. After choosing the best location for a potential, new lake, several calculations have been made, regarding simulated lake surface, the time it would take to fill the lake, according to different flow rates of the chosen river, the number of households that would have to be moved / relocated because of the lake expansion, and also potential estimated costs for the household relocation process. Overall, this methodological approach is considered to be valid, taking into consideration the validation of the results, with real life dams, that have already been built in these areas.

Morphographic and Morphometric Features of the Hăghimaş Mountains, the Hydrographic Basin and the Red Lake Lacustrine Basin

The tectonics of the erosive substrate (composed of limestones and conglomerates) is highly fragmented and represents an important factor in the morphology and morphometry of the landscape. The hydrographic basin is individualized by a series of variables, from which the most important are: rocks; soil layer and vegetal layer. The morphometric parameters for the Red Lake hydrographic basin were determined through the computer-based cartography programs TNTMips (Microimage) and ArcGis (ESRI). Out of these, the most important are: basin length, width, drainage network length and frequencies, basin surface, landform orientation, slope exposure etc. The Horton-Strahler hierarchy of the hydrographic network was also assembled, in order to point out the maximum order number of the basin river system and make a statistical analysis on the Red Lake tributaries of each Horton-Strahler river order. A detailed analysis (from both a spatial and a statistical point of view) was made on different hydrographic basins, according to the corresponding river’s Horton-Strahler order. The lake basin parameters were measured with state of the art equipment (LEICA TCR 1201 total station, together with LEICA GPS 1200; Valeport Midas Surveyor echo sounder), which was used to obtain a bathymetric map of the lake and the morphometry of the surrounding areas. The bathymetric map was used to generate transects, which would later be used in silting analysis and other detailed analyses.

The Nature of the Sediments Within the Lacustrine Basin

The sediment discharge that ends up in the Red Lake is important, mostly given that the last decades have been characterized by intense deforestations. These have accelerated the erosion and the silting of the lake basin, as well. In order to correctly assess the source areas of the sediments, from the drainage basin, satellite imagery has been used, to accurately identify the areas that have suffered from deforestation in the last decades. Through deforestation, the slopes are severely destabilized, being vulnerable to landslides, high-water waves, etc. Several silt samples from the bottom of the lake were taken in 17 points covering the whole surface of the lake. The thickness of the lacustrine sediments varies extremely, reaching a maximum of over 6 m in the spillway sectors of the two important brooks: Oaia (Oii) and Suhard. The silting process was also measured by comparing bathymetrical transects between the measurements taken by Pisotă and Năstase in 1957 and the measurements taken in 2010 with specialized equipment. Therefore, the silting rate is a very important parameter, associated with numerous processes both natural and anthropic. Silting has also been studied with the help of gravity core samples. Several USLE models have been made, to emphasize the difference between natural erosion and accelerated erosion, due to illegal deforestation. Silting analysis is very important, because, by using different methods, predictions on future silting rates can be made and we can estimate the lifespan of the lake.

Paleogeographic Evolution of the Hydrographic Basin and the Lacustrine Basin

The central-longitudinal area of the Eastern Carpathians belongs to the Crystalline-Mesozoic unit. This area, known as the Carpathians, belongs to the Crystalline-Mesozoic unit, whose sector is known as the Moldavian Compartment (the Tisa-Ciuc Compartment) (Grasu C, Miclăus C, Brânzilă M, Baciu DS (2010) Munţii Hăsmasului. Monografie geologic si fizico-geografică. “Al.I.Cuza University” Publishing House, Iasi; Mutihac V (1990) Structura geologică a teritoriului României. Technical Publishing House, Bucharest). To the east, the Mesozoic sedimentary is known as the External Marginal Syncline. It is separated into two compartments: the Hăghimas syncline in the south and Rarău in the north. The Hăghimas Mountains, which also comprise the Red Lake lacustrine basin, correspond to the Mesozoic syncline, located between Frumoasa-Ciuc in the south and Bistricioara in the north (Grasu C, Miclăus C, Brânzilă M, Baciu DS (2010) Munţii Hăsmasului. Monografie geologic si fizico-geografică. “Al.I.Cuza University” Publishing House, Iasi). The Red Lake was formed in the summer of 1837, when, after heavy rainfalls, a landslide diluvium fell from the Ghilcos (Ucigasu) Mountains and blocked the stream of the Bicaz brook. The Ghilcos-Hăghimas-Mezinul Crest is located in the northern compartment of the central unit within the Eastern Carpathians. The most frequent rocks within the Red Lake hydrographic basin are the following: limestones and dolomites (Triassic), limy sandstones (Lias-Dogger), sandstones and conglomerates (Barremian-Albian) and crystalline schists (Maastrichtian). There are five sedimentation cycles: the first comprises sequences of conglomerates, sandstones, loam and limestones; the second is associated with Lias limestones; the third is represented by conglomerates, calcareous sandstones and Dogger-Portlandian grey limestones; the fourth mostly comprises Neocomian whitish grey limestones; and the last one comprises conglomerates (along the Bicăjel valley, at the contact with the slopes) with loam and sandstone intercalations (the bottom of the Bicăjel valley).

Geographic Location and Boundaries

The Red Lake is situated in the Central Group of the Eastern Carpathians, within the Hăghimas Mountains (Hăsmasu Mare). The Hăghimas Mountains are part of the Moldavian-Transylvanian Carpathians group. They correspond to the southern sector of the External Marginal Syncline, with a median position between a volcanic chain in the west and a flysch chain in the east (Cristea in Munţii Hăsmas si Staţiunea Lacu Rosu. Sport-Turism Publishing House, Bucharest, 1978; Mihăilescu in Carpaţii Sud-estici. Scientific Publishing House, Bucharest, 1963; Niculescu and Oancea in Munţii Giurgeului si Curmăturii. Geografia României, vol.III. Romanian Academy Publishing House, Bucharest, 1987). The name “red” comes from the fact that, at sunrise, the sun rays fall directly on the reddish clays of the western slope (Piciorul Licos), which are reflected in its relatively clear waters. The most important tributaries are the Oaia brook (also known as Oii) and the Sec brook on the right side; on the left, there are the Verescheu, Licos and Suhard brooks.