Gheorghe Romanescu

Risk maps for gully erosion processes affecting archaeological sites in Moldavia, Romania

Most of the archaeological sites in Moldavia are situated on hill borders, at the contact with lower landform units. This is why most archaeological sites are affected by the erosion of slopes, mostly the one caused by gully erosion. In order to realize the topographical measurements of the Cucuteni gully, LEICA TCR 1201 Total Station has been used. Together with LEICA GPS 1200, this station is part of SYSTEM 1200 LEICA. In order to start the measurements, the coordinates of the ground control points were obtained from ANCPI Iasi. For data adequacy assessment, we also used the 3D Scanner measurements (6 mm/6 mm resolution). The differences between the two measurements are insignificant, which proves that the Total Station can be used with success at any time. The only shortcoming is that it takes more time and, at the same time, it is very difficult to get on very steep slopes. The Cucuteni gully registers a very fast evolution, as there is an ever growing intensity of pouring rains. The measurements carried on during 2008–2010 have shown that, if there are precipitations under 580 mm, the gully has a slow evolution. If the precipitations exceed this value, there is a very fast evolution – by 5–10 m/year. Given this advancement, a part of the archaeological site, belonging to the Cucuteni culture (Chalcolithic), was destroyed and risks complete disappearance in a couple of years. This is the reason why protection measures ought to be taken with no delay.

Siret river basin planning (Romania) and the role of wetlands in diminishing the floods.

The Siret river flows from the wooded Carpathians (Ukraine) and on the Romanian territory it has a length of 559km, from its entrance into the country till its mouth into the Danube. Practically, it is the river basin with the highest hydro-energetic potential and with the greatest fresh water supply in Romania. The total theoretical water resource in the Siret river space represents 6,868 million m 3 /year, which is above the average for Romania. In order to ensure the water sources for different use and to diminish the high floods which are more numerous and stronger, 31 accumulations have been built, with a volume exceeding 1,206.12 mln.m 3 . In 2005 the Siret recorded a historical flow with values between 5,000-5,500 m 3 /s, representing the highest flow on the interior rivers in Romania. Unfortunately, in the last 50 years, a great part of the large wetlands in this river basin have been drained, changing their destination and therefore, changing their role in diminishing floods, in recharging the aquifers and in representing a habitat for different species. In order to protect the human settlements in different regions, 570.2 km of rivers undertook regulation actions and 357.7 km of dams were built. Due to the torrential character of most of the rivers in the Siret basin, water consumption appeared and developed from simple water use to the great complex accumulations. In reality, the great reservoirs and the preserved wetlands along the main course or along other tributaries have diminished a part of the high floods produced in the last years.

Vegetation and Fauna

The chapter concerning the vegetation and fauna of the Red Lake (except for the wetlands) is based upon data taken from the scientific literature. From this perspective, the ecologic succession of the lacustrine system may be divided into three phases: open water with an oligotrophic lake regime; invasion of the lake with aquatic macrophytes, with an oligotrophic-mesotrophic lake regime; and, in the end, mesotrophic; senescence, with a mesotrophic-eutrophic lake regime (Ghenciu Trăsături hidrofizice, hidrochimice si hidrobiologice ale Lacului Rosu, 1972). The vegetation within the hydrographic basin is dominated by pine forests: spruce (Picea excelsa); silver fir (Abies alba); white pine (Pinus silvestri); larch (Larix decidua), etc. On the mountain pastures and on the alpine empty crests, graminaceous plants are predominant: red fescue (Festuca rubra); matgrass (Nardus stricta); rosy vanilla orchid (Nigritella rubra) etc., while hydrophyte and helophyte vegetation is present through the following associations: Carocetum inflatovesicariae; Caricetum appropinquatae; Equisetum limosi etc. The fauna of the hydrographic basin comprises a great variety of species, many of them rare and protected. Among the mammals the following should be mentioned: the brown bear (Ursus arctos); the common wild boar (Sus scrofa); the red Carpathian deer (Cervus elaphus carpaticus); the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus); the wolf (Canis lupus); the lynx (Felis lynx); the wildcat (Felis silvestris); the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), etc. The fish fauna is specific to the upper salmon area. As it contains dry residue, organic substance, nitrates, phenols, etc., the water provides satisfying conditions for the fish culture.

Limnology of the Red Lake, Romania

Limnology is one of the most important disciplines of hydrology. It studies inland waters and all other standing waters (natural or artificial), including hydrologic phenomena, physical or chemical, in relation to the environment (chemism, thermals, dynamics, development capabilities of the flora and fauna associations, etc.), as well as the way they are valorized by man. From a historical point of view, limnology is only approximately one century old and the founder of limnology is considered to be François A. Forel from the University of Lausanne (Switzerland). It is very important to make a clear distinction between similar terms, such as ‘‘lake’’ and ‘‘pool’’ and define a clear terminology. Out of the grand total of 1 million lakes, distributed all around the world, in Romania, there are currently about 3,450 lakes. There are many types of lakes and numerous classifications are based on several factors, such as: the origin of the lacustrine basin, hydric regime, thermal regime, mineralization degree, trophic potential, geographic position, nature (natural vs. anthropic). The anthropic category is devised into smaller types, depending on the size (the amount of the water reservoir), or on the purpose (hydro-energetic, drinking or industrial water supply, irrigations, pisciculture, recreation, balneotherapeutic, residue cleaning, wet concentration, etc.). The Red Lake is a natural dam lake, which was formed after a huge landslide blocked the Bicaz Valley in 1837. Here, the objective is emblematic, because it is the most well-known natural barrage lake in Romania. 1.1 Concept and Definition Limnology is the science that studies inland waters and all other standing waters (natural or artificial), including hydrologic phenomena, physical or chemical, in relation to the environment (chemism, thermals, dynamics, development capabilities of the flora and fauna associations, etc.), as well as the way they are valorized by man. G. Romanescu et al., Limnology of the Red Lake, Romania, DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6757-7_1, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013 1 The word ‘‘limnology’’ comes from the Greek limne = lake. In the category of lacustrine waters are included lakes, ponds and mires. More recently, wetlands have also been included in this category. Through its subject, limnology is a border discipline between geography and biology. It belongs to geography because it studies depressions and the way they were formed; it studies water, with all its characteristics (physical, chemical and dynamics), meaning the biotype—this sub-branch is called physical limnology. It also belongs to biology because it studies the flora and fauna of stagnant waters (biohydrocenosis)—this branch is called biological limnology. As the biotope and biohydrocenosis within a lake form a whole, standing waters in general represent the most typical systems in nature; they may also be called limno-systems (Hutchinson 1957; Dussart 1966, 1992; Gâs tescu 1979). ‘‘Lakes, moreover, form more or less closed systems, so that they provide a series of varying possible ecologic worlds which permit a truly comparative approach to the mechanisms of nature’’ (Hutchinson 1957). The American biologist Forbes (1887) compares the lake with a microcosm—hence the importance of lake studies to reveal the geographic evolution of an area. In a broader perspective, limnology is ‘‘the interdisciplinary science which studies water basins with slow water exchange—natural or artificial—historically, meaning dynamically in time and regionally in space, the current physical and biotic process, on the grounds of energy and matter transformation within the water body. It also studies the laws of their evolution and geographic status, their natural resources, and possibility of use by mankind’’ (Gâs tescu 1971). 1.2 Limnological History The Swiss naturalist and professor of medicine, François A. Forel, at the University of Lausanne (Switzerland) (1841–1912) is considered to be the founder of limnology. His first study was ‘‘Matériaux pour servir à l’étude de la faune profonde du lac Léman’’ (1869). The founding book of limnology is ‘‘Le Léman: Monographie limnologique,’’ Lausanne, (1892, 1895, 1904) (3 volumes). Murray (1900) introduces a methodology specific to oceanography and hydrology in his exhaustive research regarding Scottish lakes. Halbfass (1903, 1923) published his treatise on the geography, physics and chemistry of lakes (Berlin), a true basis for modern limnology. Thienemann (1925, 1926) is the first to have studied the insects of streams; he is the most important representative of European limnology (Arlinghaus et al. 2008). For better organization, on 1st January, 1922, in Kiel (Germany), Thieneman August and Nauman Einar founded the International Society of Limnology (S.I.L.—Societas Internationalis Limnologiae). It comprised 103 specialists from various countries. The first systematic observations on the lakes in our country truly appeared after 1950. For this organized start, the following geographers should be 2 1 Definition of Lakes and Their Position in the Romanian Territory

Hydrological Risk Map for the Danube Delta—A Case Study of Floods Within the Fluvial Delta

The Danube Delta is the only morphohydrographical unit of its type declared for biosphere reservation. The reduced altitudes and the increase in the frequency of hydrological risk phenomena in recent years have suggested that this area is under constant stress. To generate the hydrological risk map of floods within the fluvial delta, cartographic materials created by predecessors and LiDAR techniques were used. In recent years, extreme water levels were recorded: a minimum in 2003 and a maximum in 2006. The use of extreme data allowed the generation of the flood risk map based on hydrogrades. The levels recorded at hydrograde “0” and at hydrograde “10” were assessed. The most exposed areas are found in the apex of the fluvial delta, where the highest levels are recorded. The least exposed areas are found within the delta, where the water has a larger surface area because it is directed through the secondary channels and through other channels. The enclosures with dams, e.g., the polders (Pardina and Sireasa), are protected from floods. The dams can be affected only if they break because of poor maintenance.

Flood vulnerability assessment in the mountain–plateau transition zone: a case study of Marginea village (Romania)

The Sucevita catchment is affected by heavy rains, which produce annual floods with catastrophic effects. Among them, the material damages caused to the dwellings of Marginea village stand out. The present study examines the vulnerability of the population and buildings of a village situated in the eastern part of the Eastern Carpathians. By applying the multicriteria method, areas with high flood vulnerability were pointed out in the Sucevita catchment. Hydraulic modelling was carried out using the HEC-RAS software and revealed that 58 dwellings with high vulnerability will be affected in the case of a flood with an exceedance probability of 1% and 17 buildings in the case of a flood with an exceedance probability of 5%. By knowing the flood vulnerability zones, the appropriate measures can reduce the damages of a hydrological event. Moreover, the proper delimitation of the floodplain leads to adequate economic management and ensures the security of the population.

Geomorphologic map of the 1st Mutnaya River, Southeastern Kamchatka, Russia

The Kamchatka Peninsula–situated in the Pacific “Ring of Fire”–has 29 active and over 400 extinct volcanoes. Since it is situated in the northeastern extremity of Russia, in subarctic climate, the volcanic landforms are overprinted by the 446 glaciers. This research focuses on the 1stMutnaya catchment which drains the southern slopes of two active volcanoes: Avachinsky and Koryaksky. Those volcanoes are a permanent threat for the cities of Petropavlovsk and Elizovo, which are the 2 of 3 cities of the peninsula. Hence, most of the studies carried out in the area dealt with the natural hazards and only few focus on landscape evolution. Thus, the purpose of this study was to elaborate a cartographic approach which integrates classic geomorphology with state of the art GIS and remote sensing techniques. As result, different landforms and related processes have been analysed and included in the first general geomorphologic map of the 1stMutnaya catchment.

Historic flood events in NE Romania (post-1990)

ABSTRACT Using open-source satellite imagery like Landsat TM, ETM+ and Sentinel 2 can lead to accurate cartographic products. We mapped flood events from Siret and Prut river basins in the last 30 years based on the availability of Landsat data archive. In this area were recorded historical values in flow rates for the entire Romanian territory: 4650 m³/s on the Siret River in 2005 – the maximum value ever recorded for Romania; 4240 m³/s on the Prut in 2008 – second maximum value recorded for Romania. The most powerful floods that took place in Romania in the last years were in 1970, 1975, 1991, 2005, 2008, 2010 and 2011. In this study four years are distinguished by particularly characteristics: 1991, 2005, 2008 and 2010. Developing geo-hydrological hazard maps and adequate analysis at an appropriate scale and as quickly as possible is extremely important from an economic and social point of view.

GIS methods for assessment of hydrogeomorphic risk and anthropogenic impact which affect the archaeological sites. Case study: Dealul Mare archaeological site, Moldavian Plateau (Romania)

On the territory of Moldova Plateau (Eastern Romania), the degradation of prehistoric archaeological sites is a major issue concerning their conservation. The intensification of soil erosion, actual geomorphological processes and human impact (agriculture, over-grazing, exploitation) are the main causes leading to their destruction. For this reason, different approaches and methods, from scientifical works, were used to assess the intensity of erosion in this region of the country, but most of them have focused only on soil degradation. This study proposes a GIS method, to evaluate not only hydrogeomorphological hazards but also human impact that affecting archaeological sites, which use multiple thematic layers quantified in a single evaluating system (Likerd-type scale). A risk map was generated on 1sqkm extend and based on geoformula, which was adapted for a case study (Dealul Mare archaeological site). In calculation of this geoformula were inserted the following parameters: slope, the occurrence frequency for landslides based on aspect classes, potential water flow erosion depending on land use, potential soil types erosion, surface and liniar erosion, landslides and slope gravitational processes and human impact. The spatial analysis use a digital terrain model (DTM) with a high precision (0.25 sqm/pixel), based on LiDAR technology. Contrary to the traditional scientifical papers, characterized by subjectivity, in this study the detailed identification of risk areas was allowed by a largescale analysis. The proposed method can be applied to all archaeological sites, in Moldova Plateau, and also can be a tool for commencement of conservation works for archaeological sites which can be at risk of being destroyed.

Physico-Chemical Parameters in Mountain Freshwater: Cuejdi River from Eastern Carpathians, Romania

Spatial and seasonal variation of physico-chemical parameters of mountain streams is influenced by anthropogenic pollution pressure. The assessment of Cuejdi river water quality from Stânişoarei Mountains through 13 parameters, was performed. 30 samples each were collected during spring and autumn of 2013/2014, measurements being made both in situ aquatic ecosystem (Multi 350i / SET WTW) and in laboratory (bench meter Hanna HI 4421, Titroline 700 SI Analytics and WTW Turb 555IR).