Andrew D. Cohen

Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing research

1. Language testing - SLA interfaces: An update Lyle F. Bachman and Andrew D. Cohen 2. Construct definition and validity inquiry in SLA research Carol A. Chapelle 3. Research in interlanguage variation: Implications for language testing Elaine Tarone 4. Strategies and processes in test-taking and SLA Andrew D. Cohen 5. Describing language development? Rating scales and SLA Geoff Brindley 6. Testing methods in context-based second language research Dan Douglas 7. How can language testing and SLA benefit from the other? The case of discourse Elana Shohamy Appendix Index.

The Production of Speech Acts by EFL Learners

Descriptions are now available of the speech act realizations of native speakers in given situations and of expected deviations from these patterns in the speech of nonnative speakers. Still largely lacking is a description of the processes involved in the production of these speech act utterances. This paper reports a study describing ways in which nonnative speakers assess, plan, and execute such utterances. The subjects, 15 advanced English foreign language learners, were given six speech act situations (two apologies, two complaints, and two requests) in which they were to role play along with a native speaker. Retrospective verbal report protocols were analyzed with regard to processing strategies in speech act formulation. The study found that in executing speech act behavior, half of the time respondents conducted only a general assessment of the utterances called for in the situation without planning specific vocabulary and grammatical structures, often thought in two languages and sometimes in three when planning and executing speech act utterances, utilized a series of different strategies in searching for language forms, and did not attend much to grammar or pronunciation. In an effort to characterize the speech production of the respondents in the study, three different styles seemed to appear: metacognizers, avoiders, and pragmatists.

On taking language tests what the students report

This paper discusses methods for obtaining verbal report data on second- language test-taking strategies; reports on types of findings obtained in a number of studies conducted by university students on how learners take reading tests, in particular cloze and multiple-choice tests; and finally con siders the implications of the findings for prospective test takers and test constructors. The main conclusion is that a closer fit should be obtained between how test constructors intend for their tests to be taken and how respondents actually take them.

An exploratory study into the construct validity of a reading comprehension test: triangulation of data sources

Recent research in reading comprehension has focused on the processes of reading, while recent thinking in language testing has recognized the impor tance of gathering information on test taking processes as part of construct validation. And while there is a growing body of research on test-taking strate gies in language testing, as well as research into the relationship between item content and item performance, no research to date has attempted to examine the relationships among all three - test taking strategies, item content and item performance. This study thus serves as a methodological exploration in the use of information from both think-aloud protocols and more commonly used types of information on test content and test performance in the investigation of construct validity.

Retention of second-language vocabulary overtime: Investigating the role of mnemonic associations☆

Abstract In this study, we trained 26 learners of Hebrew as a second language to generate associations of their own choosing to new vocabulary items, and then examined their use of these and new associations during recall tasks over a period of a month. In order to illustrate the nature of the data that were recorded and analyzed, a description of vocabulary learning behavior across words and across tasks is provided for two sample students. Likewise, a description is also provided of how two words ‘behaved’ across students. Findings for the student group as a whole were as follows: Students reported using previously-formed associations most frequently in order to recall words in subsequent tasks, and their performance was better when using this retrieval strategy than when they used a new association, no longer used as an association, or used no association at all. There was also a generally high success rate across all four tasks for recall of words that were learned through association. Since a subgroup of students who learned some words without association recalled these words as well as words that they did find associations for, the question was left open as to the type of learner who benefits from learning vocabulary through association.

Developing the Ability to Perform Speech Acts.

This paper calls attention to an increasingly prominent field of interest within second language acquisition research and pedagogy, namely, that of pragmatic ability. It focuses on an area within pragmatics, that of speech acts, considers the processes underlying the performance of such speech acts, and looks at the effects of explicit instruction in this area. The paper starts by asking what speech act ability entails. Several basic distinctions are made in the description of speech acts, such as that between sociocultural and sociolinguistic ability. Second, directions of previous research describing speech acts are indicated and directions yet to be taken are pointed out. Difficulties in researching oral speech act performance are noted, and verbal report is recognized as one of a limited number of research tools available for investigating cognitive processes involved in speech act production. The paper then reviews four studies that utilize verbal report to gain at least some access to the underlying processes. Finally, the paper looks at previous research on the tutored and untutored acquisition of speech acts and provides suggestions for future research.

Research on Direct versus Translated Writing: Students' Strategies and Their Results

This study explored an alternative approach to short essay writing on language assessment tasks. Thirty-nine intermediate learners of French performed 2 essay writing tasks: writing directly in French as well as writing in the first language and then translating into French. Two-thirds of the students did better on the direct writing task across all rating scales; one-third, better on the translated task. While raters found no significant differences in the grammatical scales across the 2 types of writing, differences did emerge in the scales for expression, transitions, and clauses. Retrospective verbal report data from the students indicated that they were often thinking through English when writing in French, suggesting that the writing tasks were not necessarily distinct in nature. Since the study was intended to simulate writing situations that students encounter in typical classroom assessments, the findings suggest that direct writing in French as a target language may be the most effective choice for some learners when under time pressure.

Strategies for learning and performing L2 speech acts

Abstract This article presents a taxonomy of language learner strategies which are offered in support of learners in their efforts to obtain knowledge about speech acts and to perform them more effectively. Relevant language learner strategy literature and speech act literature are reviewed. After defining language learning and use strategies, the article makes the case for enhancing learner strategies in developing speech act ability. Next, as a lead up to the presentation of the taxonomy of strategies, the issue of where learners are to find empirical sources for speech act material is addressed, with attention given to the current concerns for naturally-occurring data. This is followed by a review of literature on efforts to teach pragmatics. The article concludes with a discussion of suggested avenues for validating the strategy taxonomy.

Attrition in the Productive Lexicon of Two Portuguese Third Language Speakers.

This study investigates loss of productive vocabulary in oral language, specifically in Portuguese as a third language for two English-Hebrew bilingual children, ages 9 and 13. The study investigated the lexical loss in Portuguese storytelling behavior after 1, 3, and 9 months of discontinued contact with the language. The analysis focused on the nature of the attrited productive lexicon, lexical production strategies used to compensate for forgotten vocabulary, and lexical retrieval processes during storytelling in Portuguese and in the childrens two dominant languages. A significant decrease was found in the total number of words produced in the Portuguese stories of the two children after 9 months, both in comparison to word total in earlier months and in comparison to total words in English and Hebrew stories. There was greater attrition in the case of the younger subject after 9 months than in that of his older sister. He used a more limited number of different words, as well as fewer and shorter T-units per utterance, which was not the case with regard to his sister. He also attrited proportionately more nouns than words from other word classes. The subjects used at least six lexical production strategies in order to compensate for forgotten words—two of them L1-based (borrowing and foreignizing), and four of them intralingual (the use of a general word, approximation, circumlocution, and word abandonment). Their data also provided evidence of lexical retrieval processes. Examples of lexical production strategies and lexical retrieval processes are given.

The Use of Verbal and Imagery Mnemonics in Second-Language Vocabulary Learning

This paper provides a critical look at the use of mnemonic associations in vocabulary learning. The paper begins with a definition of mnemonic devices—that is, techniques for converting material to be learned into a form that makes it easier to learn and remember—and focuses on verbal and imagery mnemonics, whereby a word, a phrase, or a sentence and visual imagery serve as mediator between what is known and what is to be learned. Particular attention is given to the keyword approach, in which there is both an acoustic link between a native-language word and the second-language word, and an image of the keyword interacting with the native-language word or phrase. Contentions are discussed concerning both the learning of words through verbal and imagery mnemonics and their subsequent retrieval. Attention is also given to research issues in need of investigation.