Andrew Macleod

The specificity of autobiographical memory and imageability of the future

Three studies examined whether the specificity with which people retrieve episodes from their past determines the specificity with which they imagine the future. In the first study, suicidal patients and nondepressed controls generated autobiographical events and possible future events in response to cues. Suicidal subjects’ memory and future responses were more generic, and specificity level for the past and the future was significantly correlated for both groups. In the second and third studies, the effect of experimental manipulation of retrieval style was examined by instructing subjects to retrieve specific events or summaries of events from their past (Experiment 2) or by giving high- or lowimageable words to cue memories (Experiment 3). Results showed that induction of a generic retrieval style reduced the specificity of images of the future. It is suggested that the association between memory retrieval and future imaging arises because the intermediate descriptions used in searching autobiographical memory are also used to generate images of possible events in the future.

Anxiety, depression, and the anticipation of future positive and negative experiences.

An experiment is reported that attempts to distinguish between anxious and depressive future thinking in terms of anticipation of future positive and future negative experiences. Anxious, mixed (anxious-depressed), and control participants were given an adapted verbal fluency paradigm to examine the ease with which they could think of future positive and negative personal experiences. Anxious participants differed from controls only in anticipating more future negative experiences; mixed participants showed both greater anticipation of negative experiences and reduced anticipation of positive experiences. Self-report measures of hopelessness and worry followed a similar pattern to future positive and future negative anticipation, respectively. The results are discussed in terms of the distinction between positive affect and negative affect (D. Watson, L. A. Clark, & G. Carey, 1988).

Worry is reasonable: the role of explanations in pessimism about future personal events.

This experiment examines one component of worry, elevated subjective probabilities of negative events, and attempts to elucidate the cognitive processes on which this is based. The results suggest that the pessimistic subjective probabilities shown by chronic worriers can be understood using general theories of judgment, specifically, by the use of the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). However, it is the availability of a particular pattern of cognitions--an increased accessibility of explanations for why a negative event would occur, combined with a reduced accessibility of explanations for why it would not--that is important. The results are integrated within a description of the worry process, and possible clinical applications through the use of reason-generation techniques are discussed.

Retrospective and Prospective Cognitions in Anxiety and Depression

A study is reported that examined memory for past experiences and anticipation of future experiences within panic disorder patients (N = 17), depressed patients (N = 16), and controls (N = 17). Anticipation and recall of positive and negative experiences were examined by administering an adapted verbal fluency paradigm. Participants were asked to generate future and past, positive and negative experiences in response to various time-frame cues. Anxiety was associated with generating more negative experiences but not fewer positive experiences; depression was associated with generating fewer positive experiences but not more negative experiences. The patterns for recall of past experiences and anticipation of future experiences were very similar.

Positive thinking revisited: positive cognitions, well-being and mental health

There has been relatively little attention given to the issue of positive cognition in psychological research and therapy. This paper explores reasons for this neglect and presents empirical and conceptual support for the importance of positive cognition in mental health. Evidence is presented that positive and negative aspects of experience are mediated by separate psychological systems rather than being opposite ends of a single dimension. We then review research that describes the potential importance of positive cognition in psychological disorders, especially in recovery and relapse in depression. Finally, we present suggestions for evaluating the validity and helpfulness of positive cognitions within therapy, and discuss some therapeutic approaches that focus on increasing positive cognition and well-being. The case for positive cognitions being important is argued mainly in the context of depression and the therapeutic applications are discussed mainly in relation to cognitive therapy, but the arguments may well be applicable to other disorders and other therapeutic approaches. Copyright

Approach and Avoidance Goals and Plans: Their Relationship to Anxiety and Depression

Numerous studies have identified cognitive and affective similarities and differences between anxiety and depression but relatively little empirical research has studied these emotional disturbances from a motivational perspective. This study investigates individual response-variations on approach and avoidance goals and plans. High anxiety (n = 27), high depression (n = 25), mixed (n = 30), and control (n = 30) adolescents selected from a larger school sample completed tasks that measured number and specificity of personal approach and avoidance goals and plans. High depression and mixed (depression, anxiety) adolescents generated fewer approach goals (but not more avoidance goals), fewer approach plans, more avoidance plans and were less specific in forming their goals and plans than controls. High anxiety adolescents generated more avoidance goals (but not fewer approach goals), more avoidance plans, fewer approach plans, and were less specific in forming approach but not avoidance goals and plans than controls. Overall the findings suggest that approach and avoidance motivational aspects are important in understanding anxiety and depression.

Components of hopelessness about the future in parasuicide

Hopelessness about the future is an important component of depression in general and suicidal behavior in particular. Despite this, little research has examined the concept of hopelessness. A study is reported which adapted a verbal fluency paradigm to examine the ease with which hospitalized parasuicides, hospital controls, and nonhospital controls were able to think about future positive (things they were looking forward to) and future negative (things they were not looking forward to) events. The parasuicide subjects showed a deficit in being able to think of future positive events, both for the immediate future and for the longer-term future. but there were no differences between the groups on being able to think of future negative events. Several possible explanations of the results are discussed and some suggestions are made for future research.

Childhood trauma, dissociation and self-harming behaviour: A pilot study

OBJECTIVE Childhood trauma is known to be an important antecedent in those who engage in deliberate self-harm (DSH). We aimed to explore the mediating mechanisms between childhood trauma and subsequent DSH in a sample of women detained in a high secure setting. METHOD From a previous incidence study into DSH, we subdivided a group of 50 women as follows: non-harmers (N = 13), infrequent harmers (N = 22) and frequent harmers (N = 15). These three groups were then compared on several measures believed to be associated with DSH. RESULTS The frequency of DSH was related to low self-esteem, increased dissociation, anger (both inwardly and outwardly directed), impulsivity, and a history of sexual and physical abuse. When these variables were entered into a path analytic model exploring the relationship between childhood trauma and subsequent DSH, two paths emerged: one major path which linked childhood sexual abuse to DSH via increased dissociation and another, more minor association, linking childhood sexual abuse via reduced self-esteem. CONCLUSION This study shows a strong association between high levels of dissociation and an increased frequency of self-harming behaviour. This association is theoretically plausible and has therapeutic implications.

Reduced positive future-thinking in depression: Cognitive and affective factors

A pessimistic view of the future is an important feature of depressive thinking, and appears to be influenced at least as strongly by reduced positive expectancies as it is by increased negative expectancies. The present study examined whether reduced positive future-thinking in depression could be accounted for by a reduced capacity to anticipate experiencing pleasure. Depressed and nondepressed participants were asked to generate positive future expectancies using a future-thinking task, and their capacity to anticipate experiencing pleasure in such events was also assessed. Depressed participants provided fewer anticipated positive experiences, a finding which was not accountable for by their reduced pleasure ratings. This reduced positive anticipation was related to levels of depression but not to levels of anxiety. The results are consistent with the view that the lack of anticipated positive experiences in depression arises from a difficulty in accessing mental representations of such experiences.

Are women more religious than men? Gender differences in religious activity among different religious groups in the UK

Abstract Are women more religious than men? Four religious-cultural groups in the UK were examined, using a short measure of religious activity developed to enable measurement comparable between different religious groups. Gender differences were examined among volunteers who were self-defined as Christian ( n =230), Hindu ( n =56), Jewish ( n =157) and Muslim ( n =87). Women ( n =302) described themselves as significantly less religiously active than did men ( n =226), but this effect was confined to the non-Christian groups. It is suggested that the general conclusion that women are more religious than men is culture-specific, and contingent on the measurement method used.