J. M. G. Williams

The specificity of autobiographical memory and imageability of the future

Three studies examined whether the specificity with which people retrieve episodes from their past determines the specificity with which they imagine the future. In the first study, suicidal patients and nondepressed controls generated autobiographical events and possible future events in response to cues. Suicidal subjects’ memory and future responses were more generic, and specificity level for the past and the future was significantly correlated for both groups. In the second and third studies, the effect of experimental manipulation of retrieval style was examined by instructing subjects to retrieve specific events or summaries of events from their past (Experiment 2) or by giving high- or lowimageable words to cue memories (Experiment 3). Results showed that induction of a generic retrieval style reduced the specificity of images of the future. It is suggested that the association between memory retrieval and future imaging arises because the intermediate descriptions used in searching autobiographical memory are also used to generate images of possible events in the future.

Autobiographical memory in depression

Recent research has shown that suicidal patients are not only biased in the speed with which they can remember positive and negative events from their past, but that they also find it more difficult to be specific in their memories. That is, they tend to recall sequences of events, or time periods, rather than single episodes. This tendency has been found to be more evident with positive than with negative events. This paper examines whether the same phenomenon can be observed in patients with a diagnosis of primary Major Depressive Disorder. Twenty depressed patients and twenty matched controls were presented with positive and negative cue words and asked to retrieve specific personal memories. Results showed that depressives (unlike controls) took longer to respond to positive than to negative cues. In addition, the depressed patients were less specific in their memories, especially in response to positive cues. These results are explained within a descriptions theory of autobiographical memory, and the remedial implications are discussed.

Autobiographical memory and problem-solving strategies of parasuicide patients

Recent research has noted the tendency of parasuicide patients to retrieve over-general autobiographical memories. Separate studies suggest problem-solving deficits within this group. The present study was concerned first with replicating these findings and, secondly, with developing a model of the relationship between over-general memory recall and poor problem-solving abilities in parasuicide patients. Anger and hopelessness were measured as markers for mood. In line with the hypotheses, the parasuicide group (N = 12) produced significantly over-general memories in contrast to a matched control group (N = 12). This occurred significantly in relation to positive cues, and latency to first responses was significantly delayed in the parasuicide group. The parasuicide group also provided fewer and less-effective problem-solving strategies than the control group, and a significant association was found between low effectiveness of problem-solving strategies and over-general memory recall in the parasuicide group. Anger and hopelessness levels were significantly higher within the parasuicide group in line with previous findings. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Problem-solving in suicide attempters.

BACKGROUNDnRecent research studies on the psychological processes underlying suicidal behaviour have highlighted deficits in social problem-solving ability, and suggest that suicide attempters may, in addition, be passive problem-solvers. The aim of this study was to examine problem-solving in suicide attempters (including passivity) and to see whether the deficits are mood-dependent.nnnMETHODnTwo groups, a suicide attempter group and a non-suicidal psychiatric control group completed measures of depression, hopelessness, suicidal ideation and social problem-solving ability shortly after admission, and again 6 weeks later. In addition, a non-psychiatric control group provided baseline data at a single time point.nnnRESULTSnThe suicide attempter group displayed poorer problem-solving ability than matched psychiatric controls and this difference persisted despite change in mood. However, although suicidal patients were more passive in their problem-solving style than non-psychiatric controls, they were not significantly more passive than psychiatric controls. Problem-solving did not change with improving mood.nnnCONCLUSIONSnAlthough passivity is not unique to suicidal patients, in combination with the smaller number and less effective alternatives generated, it may increase vulnerability.

Autobiographical memory and dissociation in borderline personality disorder.

BACKGROUNDnThis study investigated whether individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD) tend to be overgeneral in their autobiographical recall and whether the extent of their overgeneral recall covaries with their susceptibilities to dissociative experiences, as expected on theoretical grounds.nnnMETHODSnTwenty-three patients with BPD and 23 matched controls completed the Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT) and self-report measures of depression, anxiety, trait anger and dissociative experiences.nnnRESULTSnParticipants with BPD scored significantly higher than the control group on the measures of depression, anxiety, trait anger, and dissociative experiences and also retrieved significantly more general memories on the AMT. The number of general memories retrieved by the BPD group correlated significantly with their dissociation scores but not with their scores on mood measures.nnnCONCLUSIONSnPatients with BPD have difficulties in recalling specific autobiographical memories. These difficulties are related to their tendency to dissociate and may help them to avoid episodic information that would evoke acutely negative affect.

Autobiographical memory and emotion in a non-clinical sample of women with and without a reported history of childhood sexual abuse

OBJECTIVESnThis study focused on the relationship between reported CSA history, subsequent autobiographical memory retrieval, intrusive and dysfunctional thoughts, and mood in a non-clinical sample. The main hypothesis was that specificity in autobiographical memory recall would differentiate between women with a reported history of CSA and those without, and that this finding would be independent of current mood.nnnDESIGNnA between-group comparison of women (female undergraduates) with and without a reported history of CSA. Within group correlations were also examined for the reported CSA group.nnnMETHODnParticipants were 79 female students, of whom 22 (28%) reported a history of CSA. All participants completed questionnaires requesting information on a history of CSA, a questionnaire version of the autobiographical memory test, the profile of mood states, the dysfunctional attitude scale, and the impact of events scale.nnnRESULTSnThe reported CSA group gave significantly fewer specific autobiographical memories, were significantly more anxious, depressed and angry, and held more dysfunctional beliefs than the comparison group. However, specificity of memory was not correlated with the degree of this mood disturbance or with the impact of event scale or extent of dysfunctional beliefs.nnnCONCLUSIONSnModels of the long-term effects of CSA should incorporate the effects CSA may have on subsequent retrieval for memory of non-abuse events. To improve treatment outcome, clinicians may have to directly address these deficits in therapy.

The effect of imageability and predicability of cues in autobiographical memory.

Four experiments investigated the role of imagery in the recollection of autobiographical memories. The first two experiments examined the effects of word imageability and word frequency on the retrieval of personal memories in a cued autobiographical memory task. They showed that the imageability of cues (but not frequency) mediates specificity in the recall of personal memories. Experiment 2 explored how different imagery modalities (visual, olfactory, tactile, auditory, and motor) influence autobiographical retrieval. Consistent with research on imagery modalities in verbal learning paradigms, visual imageability emerged as the most significant predictor of specificity. Experiments 3 and 4 examined how far a knowledge-based account of imagery effects might account for these effects, using predicability as a measure of semantic richness of a cue. Results found that visual imageability of cues accounted for more variance in specificity of recall than did predicability. The results are explained in terms of the way images represent the most efficient form of summarizing the information that can be used at each stage of the recollection process: setting the retrieval plan, strategic search, and evaluation of candidate episodes.

Autobiographical memory and parasuicide in borderline personality disorder.

BACKGROUNDnSeveral studies have found that parasuicidal patients are poor at recalling specific autobiographical memories when tested with the word-cueing paradigm and two studies have reported some evidence that over-general recall is a risk factor for repetition of parasuicide. The aim of the present study was to test whether this association could be replicated with a sample of patients suffering from borderline personality disorder (BPD).nnnMETHODnTwenty-three patients with BPD completed a version of the Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT) and self-report measures of depression, anxiety and trait anger. In a structured interview, they also reported the number of times they had engaged in parasuicidal acts during the previous 4 months.nnnRESULTSnThe number of general memories produced on the AMT made a significant contribution to the prediction of the frequency of parasuicidal acts in a multiple regression analysis but the partial correlation in the final equation was negative. That is, those who showed greatest over-general recall reported fewest parasuicidal acts. Anxiety and depression, but not trait anger, also made significant independent contributions to the prediction of parasuicide.nnnCONCLUSIONnOver-general autobiographical recall may help to protect borderline individuals from parasuicidal acts by helping them to avoid distressing memories.

New Developments in the Understanding and Treatment of Suicidal Behaviour

Recent developments in the understanding, assessment and treatment of suicidal behaviour are reviewed. The accumulated social and demographic knowledge of suicidal populations has proved to be clinically useful in shaping the general level of concern, but at the individual level an understanding of the psychological processes involved in suicidal behaviour is required. Studies examining psychological processes involved in suicidal behaviour is required. Studies examining psychological processes in parasuicidal groups have revealed a number of deficits, including poor interpersonal problem solving, hopelessness about the future, and reduced ability to regulate affect. Research has also begun to look at some of the processes underlying these deficits, such as over-general retrieval of autobiographical memories and reduced anticipation of specific positive experiences. The clinical picture is now more optimistic, with therapies, such as Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, which focus on using problem solving strategies with those clients who are most vulnerable to repeat parasuicide episodes, producing demonstrable delays in parasuicide and reduced risk of repetition. The importance of the relationship between research and clinical practice is emphasized.