Andrew W. Meyers

SMOKING, BODY WEIGHT, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON SMOKING BEHAVIOR: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This article provides a comprehensive review of the research on smoking and body weight. The relationships between smoking and body weight are evaluated in 70 cross-sectional and longitudinal investigations. The mechanisms responsible for differences in body weight are discussed, the weight-related issues that promote smoking behavior are reviewed, methods for reducing postcessation weight gain are summarized, and future research directions are proposed. A proposed working research model for studying the relationship between smoking, energy balance, and weight gain is offered. It is concluded that smoking and body weight relationships are closely related and pose significant challenges for smoking researchers.

Are weight concerns predictive of smoking cessation ? A prospective analysis

Participants in an 8-session, community based smoking cessation intervention rated whether they would stay quit if they experienced weight gain. The majority reported that they would not relapse to smoking, even after a 20-lb, (9.07-kg) weight gain. Those who were weight concerned were more likely to be female, to weight less and be normal or underweight, and to report chronic dieting. This group was also significantly less likely to be abstinent posttreatment, and at the 1-, 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Individuals presenting for formal smoking cessation interventions may be less weight concerned than the general population of smokers. However, weight-concerned smokers who do present for treatment are less likely to quit smoking. Implications for recruitment and intervention are discussed.

How much weight gain occurs following smoking cessation ? A comparison of weight gain using both continuous and point prevalence abstinence

Estimates of postcessation weight gain vary widely. This study determined the magnitude of weight gain in a cohort using both point prevalence and continuous abstinence criteria for cessation. Participants were 196 volunteers who participated in a smoking cessation program and who either continuously smoked (n = 118), were continuously abstinent (n = 51), or who were point prevalent abstinent (n = 27) (i.e., quit at the 1-year follow-up visit but not at others). Continuously abstinent participants gained over 13 lbs. (5.90 kg) at 1 year, significantly more than continuously smoking (M = 2.4 lb.) and point prevalent abstinent participants (M = 6.7 lbs., or 3.04 kg). Individual growth curve analysis confirmed that weight gain and the rate of weight gain (pounds per month) were greater among continuously smoking participants and that these effects were independent of gender, baseline weight, smoking and dieting history, age, and education. Results suggest that studies using point prevalence abstinence to estimate postcessation weight gain may be underestimating postcessation weight gain.

Behavioral Assessment of Gambling: An Application of the Timeline Followback Method.

The Gambling Timeline Followback (G-TLFB), a measure of gambling behavior that uses the timeline followback methodology, was psychometrically evaluated with samples of frequent-gambling young adults. Seven dimensions of gambling behavior were assessed: type, frequency, duration, intent, risk, win-loss, and consumption of alcohol while gambling. The G-TLFB demonstrated adequate to excellent test-retest reliability with a sample of 57 frequent gamblers (r=.75 to.96) and with a group of 34 disordered gamblers (r=.73 to.93). With a separate sample of 58 frequent-gambling participants, convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity were assessed. The G-TLFB correlated positively with daily self-monitoring reports (r=.59 to.87). The dimensions of frequency and duration demonstrated concurrent validity with gambling screening instruments, and standard drinks consumed while gambling demonstrated concurrent validity with a measure of alcohol misuse. The G-TLFB also demonstrated discriminant validity with demographic variables and a measure of positive impression management.

Measurement Reliability and Reactivity Using Repeated Measurements of Resting Energy Expenditure with a Face Mask, Mouthpiece, and Ventilated Canopy

This investigation evaluated the measurement reliability and reactivity of repeated measurements of resting energy expenditure using different methods of data collection. Thirty subjects were randomly assigned to either face mask, mouthpiece/nose clip, or ventilated canopy collection systems for 45 min a day over 3 days. Results indicated that there were no significant differences among data collection systems nor were there any differences either within or between systems over time. Across all three days of measurement, the first 5 min of data collection on all systems were reactive compared to the subsequent 40 min of assessment. Analyses indicated that acceptable reliability coefficients were obtained after 20 min of continuous data collection in the ventilated canopy and after 40 min with the face mask after a 5-min acclimation period. The results suggest that, following an acclimation period, a single 20-min assessment of resting energy expenditure in both a face mask and ventilated canopy are stable and reliable.

Performance enhancement in sport: A cognitive behavioral domain

The clinical technology developed by cognitive behavioral practitioners has become the foundation for psychological efforts to enhance athletic performance. To provide a backdrop for this sport intervention research, the history of applied sport psychology is briefly noted. Then, the empirical literature which supportes the use of cognitive behavioral intervention strategies in athletic contexts is considered. This work includes the treatment evaluation evidence for performance improvement of non-elite sport participants, and correlational evidence that supports the consideration of psychological variables in the performance of elite athletes. The intervention strategies under review include imagery and mental rehearsal, arousal management, goal-setting, self-instruction and self-monitoring, and multi-component treatment programs. The implications of this research for applied sport psychology and the broader field of clinical intervention are discussed.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy with Children

Cognitive behavior therapy with children is a relatively new and rapidly developing area of clinical psychology. In a recent survey of employment in APA-approved clinical psychology programs, Klesges, Sanchez, and Stanton (1982) found that 40% of the new faculty described their theoretical orientation as cognitive behavioral and an additional 18% described themselves as behavioral; both of these percentages exceeded any other specific theoretical preference. In their recent survey sampling clinical psychologists of Division 12 of APA, Norcross and Prochaska (1982) reported that behavior modification and family therapy involving children were among the most rapidly increasing therapy activities. It is likely that this increased emphasis will continue, because the youngest group of therapists (less than 10 years of postdoctoral experience) spent a greater percentage of their time engaged in these recently developed approaches than did the more experienced therapists.

Generalization of self-instructions: Effects of general versus specific content, active rehearsal, and cognitive level.

SCHLESER, ROBERT; MEYERS, ANDREW W.; and COHEN, ROBERT. Generalization of Self-Instructions: Efects of General versus Specific Content, Active Rehearsal, and Cognitive Level. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1981, 52, 335-340. Preoperational and concrete-operational first and second graders performed on a training task (Matching Familiar Figures test [MFF]) and a generalization task (a perceptual perspective-taking task) prior to and after serving in 1 of 5 instructional groups. The instruction groups were: a no-training control group, a specific self-instruction group, a specific didactic control group, a general self-instruction group, and a general didactic control group. Children in the didactic control groups received the same instructional content as children in the respective self-instruction groups, but without active rehearsal. Those in the specific self-instruction group significantly improved in performance relative to all control groups on the MFF, but not on the perspective-taking task. Children in the general self-instruction group significantly improved in performance relative to both didactic control groups on the MFF and performed significantly better than all other groups on the perspective-taking task. Although concrete-operational children made more overall correct responses on both tasks than preoperational children, the patterns of improvement following instruction were identical.

Relationship of smoking status, energy balance, and body weight: Analysis of the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

The relationship between smoking status and body mass index (weight/height) was evaluated, controlling for demographics, dietary intake, and physical activity. Subjects were 10,778 adult respondents from the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II). Results indicate that never smokers and long-term quitters had similar relative body weights and that low-rate current smokers were not significantly different from never smokers. However, both medium- and high-rate current smokers weighed less than nonsmokers and low-rate smokers. When medium- versus high-rate smokers were contrasted, sex interacted with results. Specifically, weight-control properties of smoking were more pronounced in women than men. It is proposed that future research should more closely evaluate metabolic changes as a function of smoking status.

Cognitive strategies and running performance: An exploratory study

Cognitive style differences between more and less successful but still highly skilled athletes have been identified. This study examined the cognitive strategy use of novice runners, and investigated the effects of training to adopt either associative or dissociative cognitive strategies on the performance of new runners. Students in fitness classes were randomly assigned to an Associative group, a Dissociative group or a Relaxation Control group. Before, during, and after five weeks of strategy training subjects competed in a one and one-half mile run. Analyses revealed that all runners used increasingly more associative cognitive strategies over the training period. However, those runners who employed relatively more dissociative cognitive strategies demonstrated a greater reduction in running time over trials relative to students who reported using more associative strategies. The interaction between cognitive strategy use and physical skills was discussed.