Angela M. Gronenborn

Determination of three‐dimensional structures of proteins from interproton distance data by hybrid distance geometry‐dynamical simulated annealing calculations

A new hybrid distance space‐real space method for determining three‐dimensional structures of proteins on the basis of interproton distance restraints is presented. It involves the following steps: (i) the approximate polypeptide fold is obtained by generating a set of substructures comprising only a small subset of atoms by projection from multi‐dimensional distance space into three‐dimensional cartesian coordinate space using a procedure known as ‘embedding’; (ii) all remaining atoms are then added by best fitting extended amino acids one residue at a time to the substructures; (iii) the resulting structures are used as the starting point for real space dynamical simulated annealing calculations. The latter involve heating the system to a high temperature followed by slow cooling in order to overcome potential barriers along the pathway towards the global minimum region. This is carried out by solving Newtons equations of motion. Unlike conventional restrained molecular dynamics, however, the non‐bonded interactions are represented by a simple van der Waals repulsion term. The method is illustrated by calculations on crambin (46 residues) and the globular domain of histone H5 (79 residues). It is shown that the hybrid method is more efficient computationally and samples a larger region of conformational space consistent with the experimental data than full metric matrix distance geometry calculations alone, particularly for large systems.

A common sense approach to peak picking in two-, three-, and four-dimensional spectra using automatic computer analysis of contour diagrams☆

The analysis of multidimensional NMR spectra has been a challenging problem since the earliest two-dimensional experiments were reported as stacked plots (I). The first step in analysis involves obtaining a list of chemical-shift coordinates for the cross peaks. Initially, simple programs were used to generate contour plots of twodimensional NMR data, which were analyzed manually. As the utility and versatility of multidimensional NMR spectroscopy grew, several automated methods of peak picking have been developed. This Communication describes a new peak-picking algorithm which is based on contour diagrams and designed for the automated interpretation of higher dimensional 3D and 4D spectra. The oldest and most robust method of analysis is the manual interpretation of 2D contour plots. The strength of manual peak picking results from the relative ease with which the human eye can discriminate real peaks from artifacts and noise. As the proteins studied have become larger, the number of spectra to be analyzed and the number of cross peaks within a spectrum have increased dramatically, with the result that significantly more time and energy are required for the tedious manual peakpicking step. Interactive graphics software, which dynamically maintains a list of peak positions, has to some extent helped with this time-consuming step, particularly with regard to bookkeeping. Although more time will be saved with the automation of peak picking, manual inspection of spectra with an interactive graphics program will always be necessary to verify and edit automated results. Approaches to automated peak picking can be divided into three types: (a) thresholdbased methods; (b) multiplet-symmetry-based methods; and (c) peak-shape-based methods. The simplest automated peak-picking algorithm is based primarily on the intensity of local extrema exceeding a threshold value (2). Uninteresting regions of the spectrum, such as tl noise ridges, are defined to avoid selecting peaks along these artifacts. Since some real peaks have very low intensities, the threshold must be set close to the noise level, which unfortunately results in a very large number of local extrema being picked due to the noise. Thus, by itself the threshold method fails by selecting too many or too few peaks, but is ideally suited as a filter for more sophisticated methods.

Determination of three-dimensional structures of proteins from interproton distance data by dynamical simulated annealing from a random array of atoms Circumventing problems associated with folding

A new real space method, based on the principles of simulated annealing, is presented for determining protein structures on the basis of interproton distance restraints derived from NMR data. The method circumvents the folding problem associated with all real space methods described to date, by starting from a completely random array of atoms and introducing the force constants for the covalent, interproton distance and repulsive van der Waals terms in the target function appropriately. The system is simulated at high temperature by solving Newtons equations of motion. As the values of all force constants are very low during the early stages of the simulation, energy barriers between different folds of the protein can be overcome, and the global minimum of the target function is reliably located. Further, because the atoms are initially only weakly coupled, they can move essentially independently to satisfy the restraints. The method is illustrated using two examples of small proteins, namely crambin (46 residues) and potato carboxypeptidase inhibitor (39 residues).

Molecular basis of human 46X,Y sex reversal revealed from the three-dimensional solution structure of the human SRY-DNA complex.

The solution structure of the specific complex between the high mobility group (HMG) domain of SRY (hSRY-HMG), the protein encoded by the human testis-determining gene, and its DNA target site in the promoter of the müllerian inhibitory substance gene has been determined by multidimensional NMR spectroscopy. hSRY-HMG has a twisted L shape that presents a concave surface (made up of three helices and the N- and C-terminal strands) to the DNA for sequence-specific recognition. Binding of hSRY-HMG to its specific target site occurs exclusively in the minor groove and induces a large conformational change in the DNA. The DNA in the complex has an overall 70 degrees-80 degrees bend and is helically unwound relative to classical A- and B-DNA. The structure of the complex reveals the origin of sequence-specific binding within the HMG-1/HMG-2 family and provides a framework for understanding the effects of point mutations that cause 46X,Y sex reversal at the atomic level.

Mature HIV-1 capsid structure by cryo-electron microscopy and all-atom molecular dynamics.

Retroviral capsid proteins are conserved structurally but assemble into different morphologies. The mature human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) capsid is best described by a ‘fullerene cone’ model, in which hexamers of the capsid protein are linked to form a hexagonal surface lattice that is closed by incorporating 12 capsid-protein pentamers. HIV-1 capsid protein contains an amino-terminal domain (NTD) comprising seven α-helices and a β-hairpin, a carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) comprising four α-helices, and a flexible linker with a 310-helix connecting the two structural domains. Structures of the capsid-protein assembly units have been determined by X-ray crystallography; however, structural information regarding the assembled capsid and the contacts between the assembly units is incomplete. Here we report the cryo-electron microscopy structure of a tubular HIV-1 capsid-protein assembly at 8 Å resolution and the three-dimensional structure of a native HIV-1 core by cryo-electron tomography. The structure of the tubular assembly shows, at the three-fold interface, a three-helix bundle with critical hydrophobic interactions. Mutagenesis studies confirm that hydrophobic residues in the centre of the three-helix bundle are crucial for capsid assembly and stability, and for viral infectivity. The cryo-electron-microscopy structures enable modelling by large-scale molecular dynamics simulation, resulting in all-atom models for the hexamer-of-hexamer and pentamer-of-hexamer elements as well as for the entire capsid. Incorporation of pentamers results in closer trimer contacts and induces acute surface curvature. The complete atomic HIV-1 capsid model provides a platform for further studies of capsid function and for targeted pharmacological intervention.

Three‐dimensional solution structure of the 44 kDa ectodomain of SIV gp41

The solution structure of the ectodomain of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) gp41 (e‐gp41), consisting of residues 27–149, has been determined by multidimensional heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy. SIV e‐gp41 is a symmetric 44 kDa trimer with each subunit consisting of antiparallel N‐terminal (residues 30–80) and C‐terminal (residues 107–147) helices connected by a 26 residue loop (residues 81–106). The N‐terminal helices of each subunit form a parallel coiled‐coil structure in the interior of the complex which is surrounded by the C‐terminal helices located on the exterior of the complex. The loop region is ordered and displays numerous intermolecular and non‐sequential intramolecular contacts. The helical core of SIV e‐gp41 is similar to recent X‐ray structures of truncated constructs of the helical core of HIV‐1 e‐gp41. The present structure establishes unambiguously the connectivity of the N‐ and C‐terminal helices in the trimer, and characterizes the conformation of the intervening loop, which has been implicated by mutagenesis and antibody epitope mapping to play a key role in gp120 association. In conjunction with previous studies, the solution structure of the SIV e‐gp41 ectodomain provides insight into the binding site of gp120 and the mechanism of cell fusion. The present structure of SIV e‐gp41 represents one of the largest protein structures determined by NMR to date.

Theory and applications of the transferred nuclear overhauser effect to the study of the conformations of small ligands bound to proteins

The principles, theory, and applications of the transferred proton-proton nuclear Overhauser effect (TRNOE) to the study of the conformations of small molecules to proteins are presented and discussed. The basis of the TRNOE involves the transfer of information concerning cross relaxation between two bound ligand nuclei from the bound to the free state by chemical exchange so that negative NOES on the easily detectable free or observed ligand resonances may be seen following irradiation of other ligand resonances (free, bound, or observed), thus conveying information on the proximity in space of bound ligand nuclei. In the presence of protein, a negative TRNOE on either the free or observed resonance of nucleus i will be observed following irradiation of either the free, bound, or observed resonance of nucleus j, providing several conditions are met. Methods for obtaining quantitative conformational information from TRNOE measurements are discussed. The TRNOE method is applicable even when no individual proton resonances of either the protein or the bound ligand can be resolved, and is not limited by the molecular weight of the protein, extending the molecular weight range over which ‘H NMR can provide useful conformational information to the very largest systems. This is illustrated by the determination of the glycosidic bond torsion angle of adenosine S-monophosphate bound to horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase, yeast alcohol dehydrogenase, and bovine liver glutamate dehydrogenase.

Solution structure of the N-terminal zinc binding domain of HIV-1 integrase

The solution structure of the N-terminal zinc binding domain (residues 1–55; IN1–55) of HIV-1 integrase has been solved by NMR spectroscopy. IN1–55 is dimeric, and each monomer comprises four helices with the zinc tetrahedrally coordinated to His 12, His 16, Cys 40 and Cys 43. IN1–55 exists in two interconverting conformational states that differ with regard to the coordination of the two histidine side chains to zinc. The different histidine arrangements are associated with large conformational differences in the polypeptide backbone (residues 9–18) around the coordinating histidines. The dimer interface is predominantly hydrophobic and is formed by the packing of the N-terminal end of helix 1, and helices 3 and 4. The monomer fold is remarkably similar to that of a number of helical DMA binding proteins containing a helix-turn-helix (HTH) motif with helices 2 and 3 of IN1–55 corresponding to the HTH motif. In contrast to the DNA binding proteins where the second helix of the HTH motif is employed for DNA recognition, IN1–55 uses this helix for dimerization.

Polyglutamine disruption of the huntingtin exon 1 N terminus triggers a complex aggregation mechanism

Simple polyglutamine (polyQ) peptides aggregate in vitro via a nucleated growth pathway directly yielding amyloid-like aggregates. We show here that the 17-amino-acid flanking sequence (HTTNT) N-terminal to the polyQ in the toxic huntingtin exon 1 fragment imparts onto this peptide a complex alternative aggregation mechanism. In isolation, the HTTNT peptide is a compact coil that resists aggregation. When polyQ is fused to this sequence, it induces in HTTNT, in a repeat-length dependent fashion, a more extended conformation that greatly enhances its aggregation into globular oligomers with HTTNT cores and exposed polyQ. In a second step, a new, amyloid-like aggregate is formed with a core composed of both HTTNT and polyQ. The results indicate unprecedented complexity in how primary sequence controls aggregation within a substantially disordered peptide and have implications for the molecular mechanism of Huntingtons disease.

The solution structure of an HMG-I(Y)-DNA complex defines a new architectural minor groove binding motif.

The solution structure of a complex between a truncated form of HMG-I(Y), consisting of the second and third DNA binding domains (residues 51–90), and a DNA dodecamer containing the PRDII site of the interferon-β promoter has been solved by multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The stoichiometry of the complex is one molecule of HMG-I(Y) to two molecules of DNA. The structure reveals a new architectural minor groove binding motif which stabilizes B-DNA, thereby facilitating the binding of other transcription factors in the opposing major groove. The interactions involve a central Arg-Gly-Arg motif together with two other modules that participate in extensive hydrophobic and polar contacts. The absence of one of these modules in the third DNA binding domain accounts for its ∼100 fold reduced affinity relative to the second one.