Angela Trieu

The Stability and Complexity of Antibody Responses to the Major Surface Antigen of Plasmodium falciparum Are Associated with Age in a Malaria Endemic Area

Individuals that are exposed to malaria eventually develop immunity to the disease with one possible mechanism being the gradual acquisition of antibodies to the range of parasite variant surface antigens in their local area. Major antibody targets include the large and highly polymorphic Plasmodium falciparum Erythrocyte Membrane Protein 1 (PfEMP1) family of proteins. Here, we use a protein microarray containing 123 recombinant PfEMP1-DBLα domains (VAR) from Papua New Guinea to seroprofile 38 nonimmune children (<4 years) and 29 hyperimmune adults (≥15 years) from the same local area. The overall magnitude, prevalence and breadth of antibody response to VAR was limited at <2 years and 2–2.9 years, peaked at 3–4 years and decreased for adults compared with the oldest children. An increasing proportion of individuals recognized large numbers of VAR proteins (>20) with age, consistent with the breadth of response stabilizing with age. In addition, the antibody response was limited in uninfected children compared with infected children but was similar in adults irrespective of infection status. Analysis of the variant-specific response confirmed that the antibody signature expands with age and infection. This also revealed that the antibody signatures of the youngest children overlapped substantially, suggesting that they are exposed to the same subset of PfEMP1 variants. VAR proteins were either seroprevalent from early in life, (<3 years), from later in childhood (≥3 years) or rarely recognized. Group 2 VAR proteins (Cys2/MFK-REY+) were serodominant in infants (<1-year-old) and all other sequence subgroups became more seroprevalent with age. The results confirm that the anti-PfEMP1-DBLα antibody responses increase in magnitude and prevalence with age and further demonstrate that they increase in stability and complexity. The protein microarray approach provides a unique platform to rapidly profile variant-specific antibodies to malaria and suggests novel insights into the acquisition of immunity to malaria.

Sterile protective immunity to malaria is associated with a panel of novel P. falciparum antigens

The development of an effective malaria vaccine remains a global public health priority. Less than 0.5% of the Plasmodium falciparum genome has been assessed as potential vaccine targets and candidate vaccines have been based almost exclusively on single antigens. It is possible that the failure to develop a malaria vaccine despite decades of effort might be attributed to this historic focus. To advance malaria vaccine development, we have fabricated protein microarrays representing 23% of the entire P. falciparum proteome and have probed these arrays with plasma from subjects with sterile protection or no protection after experimental immunization with radiation attenuated P. falciparum sporozoites. A panel of 19 pre-erythrocytic stage antigens was identified as strongly associated with sporozoite-induced protective immunity; 16 of these antigens were novel and 85% have been independently identified in sporozoite and/or liver stage proteomic or transcriptomic data sets. Reactivity to any individual antigen did not correlate with protection but there was a highly significant difference in the cumulative signal intensity between protected and not protected individuals. Functional annotation indicates that most of these signature proteins are involved in cell cycle/DNA processing and protein synthesis. In addition, 21 novel blood-stage specific antigens were identified. Our data provide the first evidence that sterile protective immunity against malaria is directed against a panel of novel P. falciparum antigens rather than one antigen in isolation. These results have important implications for vaccine development, suggesting that an efficacious malaria vaccine should be multivalent and targeted at a select panel of key antigens, many of which have not been previously characterized.

An Immunomics Approach to Schistosome Antigen Discovery: Antibody Signatures of Naturally Resistant and Chronically Infected Individuals from Endemic Areas

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease that is responsible for almost 300,000 deaths annually. Mass drug administration (MDA) is used worldwide for the control of schistosomiasis, but chemotherapy fails to prevent reinfection with schistosomes, so MDA alone is not sufficient to eliminate the disease, and a prophylactic vaccine is required. Herein, we take advantage of recent advances in systems biology and longitudinal studies in schistosomiasis endemic areas in Brazil to pilot an immunomics approach to the discovery of schistosomiasis vaccine antigens. We selected mostly surface-derived proteins, produced them using an in vitro rapid translation system and then printed them to generate the first protein microarray for a multi-cellular pathogen. Using well-established Brazilian cohorts of putatively resistant (PR) and chronically infected (CI) individuals stratified by the intensity of their S. mansoni infection, we probed arrays for IgG subclass and IgE responses to these antigens to detect antibody signatures that were reflective of protective vs. non-protective immune responses. Moreover, probing for IgE responses allowed us to identify antigens that might induce potentially deleterious hypersensitivity responses if used as subunit vaccines in endemic populations. Using multi-dimensional cluster analysis we showed that PR individuals mounted a distinct and robust IgG1 response to a small set of newly discovered and well-characterized surface (tegument) antigens in contrast to CI individuals who mounted strong IgE and IgG4 responses to many antigens. Herein, we show the utility of a vaccinomics approach that profiles antibody responses of resistant individuals in a high-throughput multiplex approach for the identification of several potentially protective and safe schistosomiasis vaccine antigens.

Probing of a Human Proteome Microarray With a Recombinant Pathogen Protein Reveals a Novel Mechanism by Which Hookworms Suppress B-Cell Receptor Signaling

Na-ASP-2 is an efficacious hookworm vaccine antigen. However, despite elucidation of its crystal structure and studies addressing its immunobiology, the function of Na-ASP-2 has remained elusive. We probed a 9000-protein human proteome microarray with Na-ASP-2 and showed binding to CD79A, a component of the B-cell antigen receptor complex. Na-ASP-2 bound to human B lymphocytes ex vivo and downregulated the transcription of approximately 1000 B-cell messenger RNAs (mRNAs), while only approximately 100 mRNAs were upregulated, compared with control-treated cells. The expression of a range of molecules was affected by Na-ASP-2, including factors involved in leukocyte transendothelial migration pathways and the B-cell signaling receptor pathway. Of note was the downregulated transcription of lyn and pi3k, molecules that are known to interact with CD79A and control B-cell receptor signaling processes. Together, these results highlight a previously unknown interaction between a hookworm-secreted protein and B cells, which has implications for helminth-driven immunomodulation and vaccine development. Further, the novel use of human protein microarrays to identify host-pathogen interactions, coupled with ex vivo binding studies and subsequent analyses of global gene expression in human host cells, demonstrates a new pipeline by which to explore the molecular basis of infectious diseases.

Antibody Signatures Reflect Different Disease Pathologies in Patients With Schistosomiasis Due to Schistosoma japonicum

Infection with Schistosoma japonicum causes high levels of pathology that is predominantly determined by the cellular and humoral response of the host. However, the specific antibody response that arises during the development of disease is largely undescribed in Asian schistosomiasis-endemic populations. A schistosome protein microarray was used to compare the antibody profiles of subjects with acute infection, with early or advanced disease associated with severe pathology, with chronic infection, and subjects exposed but stool negative for S. japonicum eggs to the antibody profiles of nonexposed controls. Twenty-five immunodominant antigens were identified, including vaccine candidates, tetraspanin-related proteins, transporter molecules, and unannotated proteins. Additionally, individuals with severe pathology had a limited specific antibody response, suggesting that individuals with mild disease may use a broad and strong antibody response, particularly against surface-exposed proteins, to control pathology and/or infection. Our study has identified specific antigens that can discriminate between S. japonicum-exposed groups with different pathologies and may also allow the host to control disease pathology and provide resistance to parasite infection.

Protein microarrays for parasite antigen discovery.

The host serological profile to a parasitic infection, such as schistosomiasis, can be used to define potential vaccine and diagnostic targets. Determining the host antibody response using traditional approaches is hindered by the large number of putative antigens in any parasite proteome. Parasite protein microarrays offer the potential for a high-throughput host antibody screen to simplify this task. In order to construct the array, parasite proteins are selected from available genomic sequence and protein databases using bioinformatic tools. Selected open reading frames are PCR amplified, incorporated into a vector for cell-free protein expression, and printed robotically onto glass slides. The protein microarrays can be probed with antisera from infected/immune animals or humans and the antibody reactivity measured with fluorophore labeled antibodies on a confocal laser microarray scanner to identify potential targets for diagnosis or therapeutic or prophylactic intervention.

Immunization with Apical Membrane Antigen 1 Confers Sterile Infection-Blocking Immunity against Plasmodium Sporozoite Challenge in a Rodent Model

ABSTRACT Apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA-1) is a leading blood-stage malaria vaccine candidate. Consistent with a key role in erythrocytic invasion, AMA-1-specific antibodies have been implicated in AMA-1-induced protective immunity. AMA-1 is also expressed in sporozoites and in mature liver schizonts where it may be a target of protective cell-mediated immunity. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that immunization with AMA-1 can induce sterile infection-blocking immunity against Plasmodium sporozoite challenge in 80% of immunized mice. Significantly higher levels of gamma interferon (IFN-γ)/interleukin-2 (IL-2)/tumor necrosis factor (TNF) multifunctional T cells were noted in immunized mice than in control mice. We also report the first identification of minimal CD8+ and CD4+ T cell epitopes on Plasmodium yoelii AMA-1. These data establish AMA-1 as a target of both preerythrocytic- and erythrocytic-stage protective immune responses and validate vaccine approaches designed to induce both cellular and humoral immunity.

A Novel Candidate Vaccine for Cytauxzoonosis Inferred from Comparative Apicomplexan Genomics

Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging infectious disease of domestic cats (Felis catus) caused by the apicomplexan protozoan parasite Cytauxzoon felis. The growing epidemic, with its high morbidity and mortality points to the need for a protective vaccine against cytauxzoonosis. Unfortunately, the causative agent has yet to be cultured continuously in vitro, rendering traditional vaccine development approaches beyond reach. Here we report the use of comparative genomics to computationally and experimentally interpret the C. felis genome to identify a novel candidate vaccine antigen for cytauxzoonosis. As a starting point we sequenced, assembled, and annotated the C. felis genome and the proteins it encodes. Whole genome alignment revealed considerable conserved synteny with other apicomplexans. In particular, alignments with the bovine parasite Theileria parva revealed that a C. felis gene, cf76, is syntenic to p67 (the leading vaccine candidate for bovine theileriosis), despite a lack of significant sequence similarity. Recombinant subdomains of cf76 were challenged with survivor-cat antiserum and found to be highly seroreactive. Comparison of eleven geographically diverse samples from the south-central and southeastern USA demonstrated 91–100% amino acid sequence identity across cf76, including a high level of conservation in an immunogenic 226 amino acid (24 kDa) carboxyl terminal domain. Using in situ hybridization, transcription of cf76 was documented in the schizogenous stage of parasite replication, the life stage that is believed to be the most important for development of a protective immune response. Collectively, these data point to identification of the first potential vaccine candidate antigen for cytauxzoonosis. Further, our bioinformatic approach emphasizes the use of comparative genomics as an accelerated path to developing vaccines against experimentally intractable pathogens.

Genome- and proteome-wide screening strategies for antigen discovery and immunogen design

Infectious diseases remain a leading global cause of morbidity and mortality and there is an urgent need for effective approaches to develop vaccines, especially against complex pathogens. The availability of comprehensive genomic, proteomic and transcriptomic datasets has shifted the paradigm of vaccine development from microbiological to sequence-based approaches. However, how to effectively translate raw data into candidate vaccines is not yet obvious. Herein, we review cutting-edge technologies and screening strategies to mine genomic sequence information for state-of-the-art rational vaccine design, and highlight recent trends. Interdisciplinary approaches which cross the traditional boundaries of genomics, molecular biology, cell biology, immunology and computer science, and which prioritise antigens according to clinically relevant criteria, offer potential solutions to the widespread threat that complex pathogens pose to public health.

Specific humoral response of hosts with variable schistosomiasis susceptibility.

The schistosome blood flukes are some of the largest global causes of parasitic morbidity. Further study of the specific antibody response during schistosomiasis may yield the vaccines and diagnostics needed to combat this disease. Therefore, for the purposes of antigen discovery, sera and antibody‐secreting cell (ASC) probes from semi‐permissive rats and sera from susceptible mice were used to screen a schistosome protein microarray. Following Schistosoma japonicum infection, rats had reduced pathology, increased antibody responses and broader antigen recognition profiles compared with mice. With successive infections, rat global serological reactivity and the number of recognized antigens increased. The local antibody response in rat skin and lung, measured with ASC probes, increased after parasite migration and contributed antigen‐specific antibodies to the multivalent serological response. In addition, the temporal variation of anti‐parasite serum antibodies after infection and reinfection followed patterns that appear related to the antigen driving the response. Among the 29 antigens differentially recognized by the infected hosts were numerous known vaccine candidates, drug targets and several S. japonicum homologs of human schistosomiasis resistance markers—the tegument allergen‐like proteins. From this set, we prioritized eight proteins that may prove to be novel schistosome vaccine and diagnostic antigens.