Anita E. Pienaar

The effect of different intervention programmes on the self‐concept and motor proficiency of 7‐ to 9‐year‐old children with DCD

BACKGROUND The self-concept of children is influenced by developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD). The aim was to determine the most effective method in enhancing motor proficiency and self-concept of 7- to 9-year-old children with DCD. METHODS Teachers at nine different schools identified 201 possible DCD candidates. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children identified 58 with DCD (36 boys and 22 girls). Self-concept and anxiety were determined by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Child Form) and Child Anxiety Scale respectively. The children were randomly grouped into four experimental groups [motor intervention (MI), self-concept (SC) enhancing intervention, psycho-motor intervention (P-MI) and a control group (CG)]. A two-way analysis of variance (anova) with a group factor and a repeated measures over time followed by a Bonferroni post hoc analysis and separate one-way anovas followed by a Tukey post hoc analysis were conducted to determine between-group and within-group differences at the pre-, post- and re-tests. Effect sizes (d) were calculated to determine the practical significance of statistical differences (P < 0.05). RESULTS After completion of the intervention programmes, no significant improvement in motor proficiency was found in the SC group, while the MI, P-MI and CG groups improved significantly (P < 0.01). No further improvements were found after the retention period in all the groups. From the pre-test to retest 2, the MI, P-MI and CG improved (P < 0.01), while the SC showed lower (P > 0.05) motor proficiency. A tendency of lower anxiety (P > 0.05) was found in the SC, while the total self-concept of the P-MI showed the biggest improvement (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Motor proficiency and self-concept of children with DCD benefit from intervention, but both should be addressed for optimal benefits.

Relationship between physical fitness and academic performance in South African children

The application of the scientific method in sport demands that regular and standardised testing must be implemented by the coach or scientist to determine whether the intervention, for instance training, has had the desired effect on sporting performance. However, the test administered by the coach or scientist must have been rigorously evaluated for acceptable validity and reliability. Moreover, the judgment as to the validity of a test must not be influenced by the popularisation of a test. Despite scientific evidence to the contrary, a popular incremental field test for endurance athletes (Conconi Test) has been uncritically accepted as valid by some coaches and sport scientists. The Conconi Test is assumed a non-invasive measure of the anaerobic threshold through the identification of a coincident deflection in heart rate. This paper briefly considers the methodology and biological explanation for the Cononic Test. The paper also elaborates on the historical context within which the popular Conconi Test was developed and how factors other than scientific evidence have led to the popularisation of this test amongst sport scientists and coaches. Users of this test should consider the possibility that at least some part of the accepted validity of the Conconi Test was due to appeals to authority (eminent scientists, prominent athletes, magnitude of the feat, medal counts, records), popularity and coincidental correlation (performance and test result).

Prevalence of overweight and obesity among primary school children in a developing country: NW-CHILD longitudinal data of 6–9-yr-old children in South Africa

BackgroundWidespread trends of increasing child obesity are reported in developing countries. This longitudinal NW-CHILD study investigated changes in overweight and obesity over a three year period among 574 children between the ages 6 and 9 (282 boys, 292 girls; 407 black, 143 white) in South Africa (SA), taking into consideration sex, race and school type. Stratified random sampling was used to identify 20 schools, across 5 school SES levels (quintiles), in 4 educational districts of the North West Province of SA. Standard anthropometric techniques and international age adjusted BMI cut-off points for children were used to determine overweight and obesity, 3-years apart. Mixed models were used to analyse the effects of sex, race and socio-economic status (SES) of the school.ResultsOverall obesity increased over 3-years by 4% from 12.5% at baseline to 16.7% during follow-up. Obesity increased significantly in both white (4.2%) and black (2.0%) children, although overall prevalence in the final year was double (27.3%) in white children compared to black children (13.3%). Prevalence in obesity increased more in boys (3.2%) compared to girls (2.4%), although girls showed a higher overall prevalence (18.5%). SES effects were significant where children in schools associated with higher SES, had the highest rate of increase and the highest prevalence of obesity. A significant change towards an unhealthy BMI was found in 9.2% of the group over the 3-year period, although a small percentage (3.0%) also transitioned towards a healthier BMI.ConclusionsOverall obesity prevalence rose significantly from 6–9-years. Obesity, compared to overweight, increased more during this period. Prevalence and rate of increase differed markedly in different sexes, race and SES, masking the extent of the problem. Shifting towards an unhealthy BMI was more common than obtaining a healthier BMI over the 3-year period. It also demonstrated the difficulty of breaking the cycle of obesity, once it had started. Early prevention strategies are needed based on the trends established in this study, with special attention to white children living in high SES regions, and black children in economic transition.

Relationships between overweight, obesity and physical fitness of nine- to twelve-year-old South African children

Abstract Background: South African children show the same tendencies in overweight and obesity as children in developed countries a decade ago. Childhood overweight is associated with chronic diseases, early mortality in adulthood and psycho-social effects with lifelong consequences. This study aimed to determine relationships between overweight, obesity and physical fitness of nine- to twelve-year-old South African children. Methods: Anthropometric (body-mass index [BMI], fat percentage) and physical fitness (cardiovascular endurance, body composition, muscle strength, muscle endurance, flexibility) measurements were obtained from 280 children aged nine to twelve years (128 boys, 152 girls) using the Fitnessgram and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency II. International cut-off points were used to categorise children into normal-weight, overweight or obese categories. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Spearman rank order correlation and variance of analysis. Results: One in five children was overweight or obese, while girls were twice as likely as boys to be obese. Aerobic capacity and muscle strength, especially leg strength, decreased progressively with an increase in BMI. A progressive but nonsignificant decline was found in muscle endurance with increasing BMI, while flexibility showed the poorest relationships with various degrees of weight. Variance of analysis indicated significant relationships between BMI, cardiovascular endurance and strength (p < 0.05), while different relationships were found when gender was taken into consideration. Conclusions: Health-enhancing physical fitness of young children is negatively affected by overweight and obesity, and intervention strategies are recommended to improve the quality of life of such children but also to prevent early mortality during adulthood.

The relationship of overweight and obesity to the motor performance of children living in South Africa

Abstract Objectives: This study aimed to determine the relationship between overweight and obesity and the motor performance of nine- to 13-year-old South African children. Design: The study used a one-way cross-sectional design based on baseline measurements. Settings and subjects: The research group comprised 280 Grade 4, 5 and 6 learners (128 boys and 152 girls) from two schools that represented a distribution of socio-economic status, race and gender. Outcome measures: Anthropometric [(body mass index (BMI) and fat percentage] and motor performance measurements (fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination and strength and agility) were obtained by means of the Fitnessgram and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-II. International age-specific cut-off points were used to classify the childrens body composition as normal weight, overweight or obese. Data were analysed by means of descriptive statistics, correlation matrices and analysis of variance, followed by a Tukey post hoc analysis. Results: The results showed that running speed and agility decreased significantly with an increase in BMI. Muscular strength also decreased significantly with a smaller practical significance, while fine manual control, manual coordination, and body coordination showed the weakest relationship to BMI. Analysis of variance showed significant relationships between BMI and running speed and agility (p-value < 0.05). These relationships were influenced differently by gender and ethnicity. Conclusion: The motor performance of young South African children was negatively influenced by overweight and obesity. Intervention strategies are recommended to reduce the consequences of overweight and obesity in the overall development of such children.

The effect of visual therapy on the ocular motor control of seven- to eight-year-old children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD).

The aims of this study were to determine the extent of ocular, motor control problems and the effect of visual therapy on such problems, among seven- to eight-year-old children diagnosed with DCD. Thirty-two, children with a mean age of 95.66 months (SD ± 3.54) participated in the study. The MABC was used to classify children into DCD categories (<15th, percentile) while the Sensory Input Systems Screening Test and QNST-II, were used to evaluate ocular motor control. A two-group pre-test-post-test, cross-over design was followed with a retention test two years, thereafter to determine the lasting effect of the visual therapy, intervention. The 18-week visual therapy programme was executed once a week, for 40 min during school hours, after which the two groups were, crossed over. Percentages of ocular motor control problems ranging, between 6.25% and 93.75% were found in both the groups before participating, in the visual therapy programme, with the highest percentage problems found, in visual pursuit with the left eye. Visual therapy contributed to a, significant improvement of 75-100% in visual pursuit, fixation, ocular, alignment and convergence, with significant lasting effects (p<0.001). Visual therapy is recommended for children with DCD experiencing poor, ocular motor control.

Prevalence of overweight and obesity in grade 1 learners in the North West Province of South Africa: The NW-CHILD Study

Objectives. To determine the prevalence of overweight and obesity among grade 1 learners, taking into account age, gender, race and school socioeconomic profile. Methods. The study is based on the baseline prevalence of overweight and obesity as part of the ongoing 6-year longitudinal NW Child Health Integrated Learning and Development (NW-CHILD) study. Stratified random sampling was used to identify 20 schools from four educational districts across all five quintiles of schools in the North West Province (NWP) of South Africa (SA). A total of 816 (419 boys, 397 girls) grade 1 learners with a mean age of 6.80 (standard deviation 0.39) years participated in the study, including 567 black learners, 218 white learners and 31 learners from other race groups. Standard anthropometric techniques and international body mass index (BMI) cut-off points for children were used to determine overweight and obesity. Results. A combined prevalence of overweight and obesity (Ow/Ob) of 11.1% was found, of which 7.5% were overweight and 3.6% obese. Although 7-year-old children showed a significantly higher prevalence of overweight (10.5%) than 6-year-old children (6.3%; p<0.05), obesity levels were more prevalent among 6-year-old children (4.7%) than 7-year-old children (2.3%). Although not significant, a higher prevalence of overweight (9.3 v. 6.4%) and obesity (4.3% v. 3.3%) was found in girls than boys. For the whole sample, white children displayed a significantly higher prevalence of Ow/Ob compared with black children (19.7% v. 8.8%; p<0.05), and the prevalence of Ow/Ob was higher in 4th- (18.1%) and 5th- (21.2%) quintile schools (which are associated with higher socioeconomic status (SES)) than in quintile 1 to quintile 3 schools (5.1%, 8.7%, 6.1%, respectively; p<0.05). Conclusions. More than 10% of grade 1 learners in the NWP of SA were overweight or obese, with the prevalence being significantly lower in lower SES schools and among black children. Prevention strategies are needed to combat overweight and obesity, and the associated negative consequences of these health risks. Obesity levels in black children should also be monitored because of continuing economic transition, and taking into account increasing overweight and obesity in black South African adults.

Suitability of the ‘Little DCDQ' for the identification of DCD in a selected group of 3–5-year-old South African children

Background: In order to identify Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) as soon as possible, we need validated screening instruments that can be used for the early identification of motor coordination delays. The aim of this study was to establish the suitability of the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (Little DCDQ) for the identification of DCD in a selected group of 3–5-year-old South African children (N = 53). Method: Both reliability and validity of the Little DCDQ were assessed. Test items of the Little DCDQ, completed by the parents, were compared against the standardised Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, in a group of 53 children aged 3–5 years. Results: Correlations of r = 0.3 were established between two of the test items and good internal consistency (Chronbachs Alpha, r =  > 0.8) was established. The Little DCDQ showed poor sensitivity (57.14%), but reasonable specificity (81.25%). Conclusion: These results indicate that the Little DCDQ has potential as a screening instrument to detect possible DCD, but a few adjustments need to be considered.

The effect of a perceptual–motor intervention programme on learning readiness of Grade R learners from South African deprived environments

South Africa consists of developed and developing contexts. This article reports on a study undertaken to determine the effect of a Perceptual–motor Intervention Programme in learning readiness of Grade R learners from deprived environments. Le Rouxs Group Test for School Readiness was used as baseline assessments to establish the school readiness of Grade R learners from a deprived environment and to determine whether an effective intervention programme could rectify the shortcomings. The sample of the intervention group (n = 21) and the control group (n = 27) consisted of five to six-year-old learners. The experimental group (n = 21) of a Grade R class in a quintile 1 school followed a 10-week perceptual–motor intervention programme, while another Grade R class from a quintile two school as control group was not exposed to perceptual–motor intervention. A mixed method was applied, within an interpretivistic research design. The outcomes of the research are as follows: the results of the school readiness test were analysed with an independent t-test before intervention, a dependent t-test on improvement over time and an ANCOVA controlling for pre-test scores on the post-test. The results showed improvement in the school readiness as the experimental group improved with 33.3% compared with 14.8% in the control group. The experimental groups standard deviation (SD) is 8.11 and control groups SD is 4.96. Qualitative information was obtained from interviews with teachers and observation at the schools. The research shows the benefit for young learners learning readiness if teachers focus on intensive intervention programmes to overcome backlogs of deprivation and that effective intervention programmes could rectify shortcomings before formal teaching in Grade 1 commences. Future research to follow up the outcomes of the intervention group as well as control group could lead to a longitudinal report on the effects of such an intervention programme. Future research could also focus on other aspects contributing to school readiness like social–emotional development of young learners.

Proficiency at Object Control Skills by Nine- to Ten-Year-Old Children in South Africa: The NW-Child Study

Adequate proficiency at object control skills, which is influenced by biological and environmental constraints, underlies the development of more complex sport-specific skills. This study describes proficiency at six object control skills and demographic correlates associated with each skill and each skill criteria in 9- to 10-year-old children who were randomly selected from 20 schools (N = 826) and tested with the Test of Gross Motor Development–2. Cross-tabulation and hierarchical linear models were used to analyze the effects of sex (433 boys, 393 girls), ethnicity (619 Black, 207 White), and high (n = 312) and low (n = 514) socioeconomic school environments. Twenty-three percent of the sample showed below average proficiency. Significant sex and socioeconomic school environment differences were found favoring boys and children from higher socioeconomic environments, although kicking showed significant interaction effects. It is concluded that environmental opportunities are the primary cause of differences across skills and the rates at which the skills are learned.