Anke Munniksma

Psychosocial Benefits of Cross-Ethnic Friendships in Urban Middle Schools.

To examine the unique functions of same- and cross-ethnic friendships, Latino (n = 536) and African American (n = 396) sixth-grade students (Mage = 11.5 years) were recruited from 66 classrooms in 10 middle schools that varied in ethnic diversity. Participants reported on the number of same- and cross-ethnic friends, perceived vulnerability, friendship quality, and the private regard dimension of ethnic identity. Whereas same-ethnic friendships were uniquely associated with stronger private regard, more ethnic diversity and cross-ethnic friendships were uniquely associated with less perceived vulnerability. Multilevel structural equation modeling tested whether cross-ethnic friendships mediated the diversity-vulnerability relation. Although cross-ethnic friendships did not significantly mediate this relation at the classroom level, these friendships predicted less vulnerability at the individual student level.

Extended intergroup friendships within social settings: The moderating role of initial outgroup attitudes:

The current study hypothesized that extended intergroup friendships improve outgroup attitudes in particular for people with initially unfavorable outgroup attitudes, and for those without direct intergroup friendships. In contrast, building on structural balance theory, it was hypothesized that extended contact in small social settings may also be related to less favorable outgroup attitudes. Hypotheses were tested longitudinally among Dutch students (n = 661) who just entered multiethnic middle schools. Adopting concepts from social network analysis, an extended intergroup friendships measure was proposed which excludes direct intergroup friendships. Multilevel panel analyses showed that the effect of extended intergroup friendships with Turkish peers did not depend on whether adolescents had direct Turkish friends. Extended intergroup friendships were only related to improved outgroup attitudes for students with relatively unfavorable outgroup attitudes. Additional analyses show, in line with structural balance theory, that extended friendships within classrooms can also be related to outgroup attitudes negatively for students with favorable initial attitudes.

The development of adolescents’ friendships and antipathies: A longitudinal multivariate network test of balance theory

Peer relationships constitute an important context for the social and emotional development of adolescents (Furman & Rose, 2015). Most attention has been drawn to the emergence and maintenance of positive relationships (Veenstra et al., 2013). However, adolescents can also be tied negatively to peers. It is likely that positive ties (e.g., friendships) and negative ties (e.g., dislike) are interrelated, affecting each other over time (Berger & Dijkstra, 2013). The current study was aimed at examining the simultaneous development of friendship and antipathy networks and their interplay. We used (structural) balance theory (Cartwright & Harary, 1956; Heider, 1958) to understand the interplay between adolescents’ friendship and antipathy networks. According to the theory, relationship constructs are balanced when they are characterized by three positive ties or by two negative ties and one positive, resulting in stable relationships among the three individuals in the group (see Fig. 1-4) Based on these principles, it was expected that friendships would be formed or maintained when two adolescents disliked the same person (shared enemy hypothesis), that friends would tend to agree on whom they disliked (friends’ agreement hypothesis), that adolescents would tend to dislike the friends of those they disliked (reinforced animosity hypothesis), and, finally, that they would become or stay friends with dislikes of dislikes (enemy’s enemy hypothesis). Data came from two US middle schools (Grades 6 to 8; 11-14 years) participating in a larger longitudinal study on the social and academic development of youth. 480 students (NSchool1 = 220; NSchool2 = 260) participated in all three grades and were included in the current analyses. Friendship and antipathy networks were constructed based on peer nominations (Who is your best friend?; Who do you like the least?). Peer nominations were also used to assess prosocial behavior and antisocial behavior (Who cooperates, shares, and helps others?; Who starts fights, say mean things, and teases others?). A longitudinal multivariate network approach was used (i.e., RSiena; Snijders et al., 2010), which allowed examining the development of adolescents’ friendship and antipathy networks simultaneously over time, while controlling for individual dispositions (i.e., gender and ethnicity), network characteristics (e.g., density and reciprocity), and between-networks effects (i.e., interplay between both network types). Support was found for the first three hypotheses, and partially for the fourth hypothesis (Table 1, Fig.1-4). Taken together, the findings highlight that friendships are formed and maintained when adolescents dislike the same person; that adolescents agree with their friends on whom to befriend and dislike; and finally, that adolescents disagree with their antipathies on whom to befriend and dislike. The present findings show that the use of multivariate networks in combination with the predictions of balance theory can be fruitful for our understanding of the formation and maintenance of positive and negative relationships among adolescents. Future researchers, particularly investigating behaviors that are inherently relational such as bullying, may benefit from incorporating mechanisms of triadic interdependence. By more comprehensively mapping the adolescent peer ecology, we may be better able to reduce negative peer relationships and promote positive peer relationships among adolescents.

Disentangling the relation between young immigrants' host country identification and their friendships with natives

Immigrants who strongly identify with the host country have more native friends than immigrants with weaker host country identification. However, the mechanisms underlying this correlation are not well understood. Immigrants with strong host country identification might have stronger preferences for native friends, or they might be more often chosen as friends by natives. In turn, having native friends or friends with strong host country identification might increase immigrants’ host country identification. Using longitudinal network data of 18 Dutch school classes, we test these hypotheses with stochastic actor-oriented models. We find that immigrants’ host country identification affects friendship selections of natives but not of immigrants. We find no evidence of social influence processes.

Cross-ethnic Friendships and Sense of Social-Emotional Safety in a Multiethnic Middle School: An Exploratory Study

This exploratory study examined whether cross-ethnic friendships are related to students’ sense of social-emotional safety in a multiethnic middle school. The analysis sample (n = 227) consisted of Latino (57%) and White (43%) sixth- and seventh-grade students. Although a strong preference for same-ethnic friendships was found for both ethnic groups, Latino students felt safer than their White schoolmates. Even though the two groups did not differ in the number of cross-ethnic friendships, a greater number of cross-ethnic friendships were associated with a stronger sense of safety only among Latino students both concurrently and over time. The implications of current findings are discussed in terms of improving sense of school safety for ethnic minority students.

The relation between ethnic classroom composition and adolescents’ ethnic pride

This study investigated how students’ ethnic pride was related to variation in ethnic composition between classrooms as well as within the same classroom over time. Predictions derived from optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT) were tested among 13- to 14-year-old ethnic majority and minority students (N = 1,123). Lending support to ODT, a curvilinear relation between the share of same-ethnicity classmates and students’ ethnic pride was found in a cross-sectional analysis, with ethnic pride peaking in classrooms with approximately 50% same-ethnicity classmates. In line with ODT, longitudinal analyses revealed ethnic pride decreased for students who moved away from a share of 50% same-ethnicity classmates. Contrary to ODT, however, ethnic pride also decreased for students who moved closer to this point of optimal distinctiveness.