Maykel Verkuyten

Ethnic group identification and group evaluation among minority and majority groups: testing the multiculturalism hypothesis.

Following social identity theory, the author hypothesized that members of minority groups are more likely than majority group members to endorse multiculturalism more strongly and assimilationist thinking less strongly. In addition, the multiculturalism hypothesis proposes that the more minority groups endorse the ideology of multiculturalism (or assimilationism), the more (or less) likely they will be to identify with their ethnic in-group and to show positive in-group evaluation. In contrast, the more majority group members endorse multiculturalism (or assimilationism), the less (or more) likely they are to identify with their ethnic group and to show negative out-group evaluation. Results from 4 studies (correlational and experimental) provide support for this hypothesis among Dutch and Turkish participants living in the Netherlands.

National (Dis)identification and Ethnic and Religious Identity: A Study Among Turkish-Dutch Muslims

National (dis)identification is examined in three studies among Turkish-Dutch Muslim participants. In explaining national (dis)identification, the first study focuses on ethnic identity, the second on ethnic and religious identity, and the third on three dimensions of religious identity. Many participants show low commitment to the nation, and many indicate national disidentification. In addition, there is very strong ethnic and religious identification. Ethnic and Muslim identifications relate negatively to Dutch identification and, in Study 3, to stronger Dutch disidentification. Furthermore, perceived group rejection is associated with increased ethnic minority and religious identification but also with decreased national Dutch identification. In addition, in Studies 1 and 2 the effect of perceived rejection on Dutch identification is (partly) mediated by minority group identification. The findings are discussed in relation to social psychological thinking about group identification, dual identities, and the importance of religion for intergroup relations.

Racist victimization among children in The Netherlands: the effect of ethnic group and school

Using data from a nation-wide study, this article examines the extent of racist victimization among Dutch, Turkish, Moroccan and Surinamese children (10-13 years) in The Netherlands. The responses indicate that ethnic minority children are more often victim of racist name-calling and social exclusion than are Dutch children. Furthermore, Turkish children are more likely to face racism than Surinamese and Moroccan children. Using multilevel analysis, the effects of multicultural education and the ethnic composition of the school were also examined. If teachers reacted to incidents, this had a positive effect on racism. Furthermore, multicultural education was positively related to reported experiences with racist victimization, but this effect was only found for the Dutch children. In addition, a higher percentage of Dutch pupils was related to less racist victimization of the Dutch and to more victimization of the three ethnic minority groups.

School Satisfaction of Elementary School Children: The Role of Performance, Peer Relations, Ethnicity and Gender

The present study examines school satisfactionamong 1,090 Dutch and ethnic minority childrenaged between ten and twelve in relation totheir school context. Data were gathered in 51classes from 26 schools. Individual andclassroom variables were examinedsimultaneously, using multilevel analysis.Controlling statistically for general lifesatisfaction and teacher likeability, theresults show that the effects of educationalperformance and peer victimization on schoolsatisfaction were mediated by perceivedscholastic competence and social self-esteem,respectively. In addition, ethnic minoritygroups were more satisfied with school than theDutch pupils, and girls were more satisfiedthan boys. Multilevel analysis showed thatschool satisfaction was dependent on theclassroom context. The academic and socialclimate in the class had positive effects onthe level of satisfaction with school. Thepercentage of Dutch pupils, the percentage ofgirls and the number of pupils had nosignificant independent effects on schoolsatisfaction.

Discourses about ethnic group (de‐)essentialism: Oppressive and progressive aspects

Social psychologists studying intergroup perceptions have shown an increasing interest in essentialist thinking. Essentialist beliefs about social groups are examined as cognitive processes and these beliefs would serve to rationalize and justify the existing social system. Discourse analyses on racism have emphasized that problems of racism are to a large extent problems of essentialism. Anti-essentialism has emerged as an emancipatory discourse in the challenge of hegemonic representations and oppressive relations. The present study examines how, in group discussions, ethnic Dutch and ethnic minority people define and use essentialist notions about social groups. Both Dutch and ethnic minority participants engaged in an essentialist discourse in which an intrinsic link between culture and ethnicity was made. However, there were also examples where this discourse was criticized and rejected. This variable use of (de-)essentialism is examined in terms of the conversations context and issues at hand, such as questions of assimilation, group provisions, cultural rights, and agency. The main conclusion of this paper is that essentialism is not by definition oppressive and that de-essentialism is not by definition progressive. The discursive power of (de-)essentialist group beliefs depends on the way they are used and the context in which they appear.

Perceived discrimination and self-esteem among ethnic minority adolescents

In a sample of ethnic minority adolescents in The Netherlands, the relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was investigated. First, the participants perceived a higher level of discrimination directed at their group as a whole than at themselves as individuals. Second, personal self-esteem was relatively independent of group self-esteem. Third, perceived personal discrimination was related to personal self-esteem, and perceived group discrimination was related to group self-esteem. A path model showed 2 pathways to personal self-esteem. In the 1st path, group discrimination had a negative effect on ethnic self-esteem, which, in turn, was related to personal self-esteem. In the 2nd path, perceived personal discrimination had a direct negative effect on personal self-esteem as well as an indirect negative effect stemming from reduced sense of control.

Prejudice and Self-Categorization: The Variable Role of Authoritarianism and In-Group Stereotypes

In two experimental questionnaire studies among ethnic Dutch participants (N= 99 and N= 206), it was found that the factors predicting prejudice depend on the level of self-categorization: personal identity or national identity. In the personal-identity condition, it appeared that individual differences in authoritarianism were related to prejudice toward Turkish migrants living in the Netherlands and toward Germans, but there was no effect of in-group stereotypes. In the national-identity condition, in-group stereotypes appeared to be related to prejudice but not authoritarianism. These results suggest that individual attitudes affect evaluations of out-groups if a personal perspective is activated, whereas a representation of the typical characteristics of in-group members affects the out-group evaluations if a collective perspective is activated. These results are consistent with predictions derived from self-categorization theory and show that self-categorization affects the relative importance of individual and group factors for prejudice.

Multiculturalism among minority and majority adolescents in the Netherlands

The extent of culture maintenance by ethnic minority groups and their adaptation to majority group culture are two issues central to everyday thinking about multiculturalism. Using Social Identity Theory and a two-dimensional acculturation model as theoretical frameworks, the present study examines the attitudes of Dutch and Turkish adolescents in the Netherlands. Turkish adolescents were strongly in favor of culture maintenance, which was not seen to be contradictory to adaptation. In contrast, the Dutch were less in favor of culture maintenance and more in favor of adaptation, and saw these issues as mutually exclusive. In addition, among the Turks ethnic identification was positively related to culture maintenance and was not related to adaptation. Among the Dutch, identification was related negatively to culture maintenance and positively to adaptation. Furthermore, the perception and interpretation of responsibility for group discrimination affected the Turks views on multiculturalism. Agreement with cultural adaptation was lowest, among Turkish participants who strongly identified with their ethnic background as well as attributed discrimination to the out-group.

Biculturalism among Older Children Cultural Frame Switching, Attributions, Self-Identification, and Attitudes

This study examines cultural frame switching among bicultural Greek children between the ages of 9 and 12 living in the Netherlands. By means of experimentally primed bicultural children and the use of monocultural comparison groups in the Netherlands and Greece, it was demonstrated that social explanations, self-identification, and attitudes toward family integrity and obedience were affected by cultural identity salience. Compared to Dutch identity salience, activating Greek identity especially led to more external attributions, stronger identification with friends, a more positive evaluation of social identity, and a less positive evaluation of personal identity. Similar tendencies were found for the attitude measures. In addition, similar differences were found when comparing monocultural Dutch and monocultural Greek children. It is concluded that this kind of experimental study and its results help to improve our understanding of the experiences of bicultural individuals and the way culture influences people’s lives.

Multicultural recognition and ethnic minority rights: A social identity perspective

Questions of multiculturalism give rise to lively and important debates in many countries and in many spheres of life. Diversity is considered desirable and necessary for the development of secure ethnic identities and positive self-feelings, but is also challenged for being inequitable and a threat to social cohesion. It is argued that the social identity perspective offers a useful framework for examining some of the key social psychological correlates and consequences of multicultural recognition. This perspective draws attention to status positions, ingroup identification, beliefs about the nature of ethnic groups, and perceptions of the social system. The first empirical section deals with the endorsement of multiculturalism in relation to majority – minority group status and the perceived nature of minority groups. Subsequently, the endorsement of multiculturalism is examined in relation to perceived structural discrimination, and the importance of social cohesion and stability. In the third empirical part the focus is on consequences of multicultural recognition for ingroup identification and self-esteem. As a set, the various empirical and theoretical arguments suggest that there is not one best approach to managing cultural diversity. Rather, it is important to concentrate on when and why specific effects occur, which means that more systematic attention should be paid to forms of multiculturalism, different groups, and to various conditions and circumstances.