Ann R. Rittenhouse

Arachidonic acid mediates muscarinic inhibition and enhancement of N-type Ca2+ current in sympathetic neurons

N-type Ca2+ channels participate in acute activity-dependent processes such as regulation of Ca2+-activated K+ channels and in more prolonged events such as gene transcription and long-term depression. A slow postsynaptic M1 muscarinic receptor-mediated modulation of N-type current in superior cervical ganglion neurons may be important in regulating these processes. This slow pathway inhibits N-type current by using a diffusible second messenger that has remained unidentified for more than a decade. Using whole-cell patch–clamp techniques, which isolate the slow pathway, we found that the muscarinic agonist oxotremorine methiodide not only inhibits currents at positive potentials but enhances N-type current at negative potentials. Enhancement was also observed in cell-attached patches. These findings provide evidence for N-type Ca2+-current enhancement by a classical neurotransmitter. Moreover, enhancement and inhibition of current by oxotremorine methiodide mimics modulation observed with direct application of a low concentration of arachidonic acid (AA). Although no transmitter has been reported to use AA as a second messenger to modulate any Ca2+ current in either neuronal or nonneuronal cells, we nevertheless tested whether a fatty acid signaling cascade was involved. Blocking phospholipase C, phospholipase A2, or AA but not AA metabolism minimized muscarinic modulation of N-type current, supporting the participation of these molecules in the slow pathway. A role for the G protein Gq was also confirmed by blocking muscarinic modulation of Ca2+ currents with anti-Gqα antibody. Our finding that AA participates in the slow pathway strongly suggests that it may be the previously unknown diffusible second messenger.

Regulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels by lipids

Great skepticism has surrounded the question of whether modulation of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels (VGCCs) by the polyunsaturated free fatty acid arachidonic acid (AA) has any physiological basis. Here we synthesize findings from studies of both native and recombinant channels where micromolar concentrations of AA consistently inhibit both native and recombinant activity by stabilizing VGCCs in one or more closed states. Structural requirements for these inhibitory actions include a chain length of at least 18 carbons and multiple double bonds located near the fatty acids carboxy terminus. Acting at a second site, AA increases the rate of VGCC activation kinetics, and in Ca(V)2.2 channels, increases current amplitude. We present evidence that phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)), a palmitoylated accessory subunit (beta(2a)) of VGCCs and AA appear to have overlapping sites of action giving rise to complex channel behavior. Their actions converge in a physiologically relevant manner during muscarinic modulation of VGCCs. We speculate that M(1) muscarinic receptors may stimulate multiple lipases to break down the PIP(2) associated with VGCCs and leave PIP(2)s freed fatty acid tails bound to the channels to confer modulation. This unexpectedly simple scheme gives rise to unanticipated predictions and redirects thinking about lipid regulation of VGCCs.

M1 muscarinic receptors inhibit L-type Ca2+ current and M-current by divergent signal transduction cascades.

Ion channels reside in a sea of phospholipids. During normal fluctuations in membrane potential and periods of modulation, lipids that directly associate with channel proteins influence gating by incompletely understood mechanisms. In one model, M1-muscarinic receptors (M1Rs) may inhibit both Ca2+ (L- and N-) and K+ (M-) currents by losing a putative interaction between channels and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). However, we found previously that M1R inhibition of N-current in superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons requires loss of PIP2 and generation of a free fatty acid, probably arachidonic acid (AA) by phospholipase A2 (PLA2). It is not known whether PLA2 activity and AA also participate in L- and M-current modulation in SCG neurons. To test whether PLA2 plays a similar role in M1R inhibition of L- and M-currents, we used several experimental approaches and found unanticipated divergent signaling. First, blocking resynthesis of PIP2 minimized M-current recovery from inhibition, whereas L-current recovered normally. Second, L-current inhibition required group IVa PLA2 [cytoplasmic PLA2 (cPLA2)], whereas M-current did not. Western blot and imaging studies confirmed acute activation of cPLA2 by muscarinic stimulation. Third, in type IIa PLA2 [secreted (sPLA2)]−/−/cPLA2−/− double-knock-out SCG neurons, muscarinic inhibition of L-current decreased. In contrast, M-current inhibition remained unaffected but recovery was impaired. Our results indicate that L-current is inhibited by a pathway previously shown to control M-current over-recovery after washout of muscarinic agonist. Our findings support a model of M1R-meditated channel modulation that broadens rather than restricts the roles of phospholipids and fatty acids in regulating ion channel activity.

Effects of arachidonic acid on unitary calcium currents in rat sympathetic neurons

1 We have characterized the actions of arachidonic acid (AA) on whole cell and unitary calcium (Ca2+) currents in rat neonatal superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons using barium (Ba2+) as the charge carrier. 2 Whole cell currents were elicited by stepping the membrane potential from −90 mV to +10 mV. Arachidonic acid (5 μm) was introduced into the bath in the continued presence of 1 μm (+)‐202‐791, an L‐type Ca2+ channel agonist. Under these conditions, the peak current, comprised mainly of N‐type current, and a slow, (+)‐202‐791‐induced component of the tail current were inhibited by 67 ± 6 and 60 ± 10%, respectively, indicating that AA inhibits both N‐ and L‐type currents. 3 At a test potential of +30 mV, AA (5 μm) decreased unitary L‐ and N‐type Ca2+ channel open probability (Po) in cell‐attached patches that contained a single channel. For both channels, the underlying causes of the decrease in Po were similar. Arachidonic acid caused an increase in the percentage of null sweeps and in the number of null sweeps that clustered together. In sweeps with activity, the average number of openings per sweep decreased, while first latency and mean closed time increased. Arachidonic acid had no significant effect on unitary current amplitude or mean open time. 4 Our findings are the first description of the inhibition of unitary L‐ and N‐type Ca2+ channel activity by AA and are consistent with both channels spending more time in their null mode and with increased dwell time in one or more closed states.

The Antifungal Imidazole Clotrimazole and its Major In Vivo Metabolite are Potent Blockers of the Calcium-Activated Potassium Channel in Murine Erythroleukemia Cells

Abstract. Clotrimazole (CLT), a member of the antifungal imidazole family of compounds, has been found to inhibit both calcium (Ca2+)-activated 86Rb and potassium (K) fluxes of human red cells and to inhibit red cell binding of 125I-charybdotoxin (ChTX) [11]. We have now used patch-clamp techniques to demonstrate reversible inhibition of whole cell KCa2+ currents in murine erythroleukemia (MEL) cells by submicromolar concentrations of CLT. Inhibition was equivalent whether currents were elicited by bath application of the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 or by dialyzing cells with a pipette solution containing micromolar concentrations of free Ca2+. The extent of inhibition of whole cell MEL KCa2+ currents was voltage-dependent, decreasing with increasing test potential. We also determined the single channel basis of the CLT inhibition in MEL cells by demonstrating the inhibition of a calcium-activated, ChTX-sensitive K channel by CLT in outside-out patches. The channel was also blocked by the des-imidazolyl metabolite of CLT, 2-chlorophenyl-bisphenyl-methanol (MET II) [15], thus demonstrating that the imidazole ring is not required for the inhibitory action of CLT. Single KCa2+ channels were also evident in inside-out patches of MEL cells. Block of K current by CLT was not unique to MEL cells. CLT also inhibited a component of the whole cell K current in PC12 cells. Channel specificity of block by CLT was determined by examining its effects on other types of voltage-sensitive currents. CLT block showed the following rank order of potency: K currents in PC12 cells > Ca2+ currents in PC12 cells ≫ Na currents in sympathetic neurons. These results demonstrate that direct inhibition of single KCa2+ by CLT can be dissociated from inhibition of cytochrome P-450 in MEL cells.

The Ca2+ channel β subunit determines whether stimulation of Gq-coupled receptors enhances or inhibits N current

In superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons, stimulation of M1 receptors (M1Rs) produces a distinct pattern of modulation of N-type calcium (N-) channel activity, enhancing currents elicited with negative test potentials and inhibiting currents elicited with positive test potentials. Exogenously applied arachidonic acid (AA) reproduces this profile of modulation, suggesting AA functions as a downstream messenger of M1Rs. In addition, techniques that diminish AAs concentration during M1R stimulation minimize N-current modulation. However, other studies suggest depletion of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate during M1R stimulation suffices to elicit modulation. In this study, we used an expression system to examine the physiological mechanisms regulating modulation. We found the β subunit (CaVβ) acts as a molecular switch regulating whether modulation results in enhancement or inhibition. In human embryonic kidney 293 cells, stimulation of M1Rs or neurokinin-1 receptors (NK-1Rs) inhibited activity of N channels formed by CaV2.2 and coexpressed with CaVβ1b, CaVβ3, or CaVβ4 but enhanced activity of N channels containing CaVβ2a. Exogenously applied AA produced the same pattern of modulation. Coexpression of CaVβ2a, CaVβ3, and CaVβ4 recapitulated the modulatory response previously seen in SCG neurons, implying heterogeneous association of CaVβ with CaV2.2. Further experiments with mutated, chimeric CaVβ subunits and free palmitic acid revealed that palmitoylation of CaVβ2a is essential for loss of inhibition. The data presented here fit a model in which CaVβ2a blocks inhibition, thus unmasking enhancement. Our discovery that the presence or absence of palmitoylated CaVβ2a toggles M1R- or NK-1R–mediated modulation of N current between enhancement and inhibition identifies a novel role for palmitoylation. Moreover, these findings predict that at synapses, modulation of N-channel activity by M1Rs or NK-1Rs will fluctuate between enhancement and inhibition based on the presence of palmitoylated CaVβ2a.

ω-Conotoxin Inhibits the Acute Activation of Tyrosine Hydroxylase and the Stimulation of Norepinephrine Release by Potassium Depolarization of Sympathetic Nerve Endings

Abstract: Increased Ca2+ influx serves as a signal that initiates multiple biochemical and physiological events in neurons following depolarization. The most widely studied of these phenomena is the release of neurotransmitters. In sympathetic neurons, depolarization also increases the rate of synthesis of the transmitter norepinephrine (NE), via an activation of the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and this effect also seems to involve Ca2+ entry. We have examined whether the mechanism of Ca2+ entry relevant to TH activation is via voltage‐sensitive Ca2+ channels and, if so, whether the type of Ca2+ channel involved is the same as that involved in the stimulation of NE release. We have investigated the isolated rat iris, allowing us to examine transmitter biosynthesis and release in sympathetic nerve terminals in the absence of sympathetic cell bodies and dendrites. Potassium depolarization produced a three‐ to fivefold increase in TH activity and an ∼ 100‐fold increase in NE release. Both effects were dependent on Ca2+ being present in the extracellular medium, and both were inhibited by ω‐conotoxin (1μM), which inhibits N‐type voltage‐sensitive Ca2+ channels. In contrast, the di‐hydropyridine nimodipine (1–3 μM), which blocks L‐type Ca2+ channels, had no effect on either measure. These data support the hypothesis that increases in NE biosynthesis and release in sympathetic nerve terminals during periods of depolarization are both initiated by an influx of Ca2+ through voltage‐sensitive Ca2+ channels and that a similar type of Ca2+ channel is involved in both processes.

Phospholipid metabolism is required for M1 muscarinic inhibition of N-type calcium current in sympathetic neurons

The signal transduction cascade mediating muscarinic receptor modulation of N-type Ca2+ channel activity by the slow pathway has remained incompletely characterized despite focused investigation. Recently we confirmed a role for the G-protein Gq and identified phospholipase C (PLC), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and arachidonic acid (AA) as additional molecules involved in N-current inhibition in superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons by the slow pathway. We have further characterized this signal transduction cascade by testing whether additional molecules downstream of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) are required. The L-channel antagonist nimodipine was bath-applied to block L-current. Pretreating cells with pertussis toxin (PTX) minimized M2/M4 muscarinic receptor inhibition of N-current by the membrane-delimited pathway. Consistent with our previous studies, pharmacologically antagonizing M1 muscarinic receptors (M1Rs), Gqα, PLC, PLA2, and AA minimized N-current inhibition by the muscarinic agonist oxotremorine-M (Oxo-M). When cells were left untreated with PTX, leaving the membrane-delimited pathway intact and the same antagonists retested, Oxo-M decreased whole cell currents. Moreover, inhibited currents displayed slowed activation kinetics, indicating intact N-current inhibition by the membrane-delimited pathway. These findings indicate that the antagonists used to block the slow pathway acted selectively. PLA2 cleaves AA from phospholipids, generating additional metabolites. We tested whether the metabolite lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) mimicked the inhibitory actions of Oxo-M. In contrast to AA, applying LPA did not inhibit whole cell currents. Taken together, these findings suggest that the slow pathway requires M1Rs, Gqα, PLC, PIP2, PLA2, and AA for N-current inhibition.

Pharmacological discrimination between muscarinic receptor signal transduction cascades with bethanechol chloride

Muscarinic agonist specificity is limited, making it difficult to match receptor subtypes with signal transduction cascades that mediate ion channel modulation. We have characterized the inhibitory effects of two muscarinic agonists, oxotremorine‐M (Oxo‐M) and bethanechol chloride (BeCh), on Ca2+ currents in neonatal rat superior cervical ganglion neurons. Oxo‐M‐mediated (10 μM) inhibition occurred via two signaling pathways. The first pathway inhibited whole cell peak currents, consisting primarily of N‐type current, but not FPL 64176‐induced, long‐lasting tail currents, comprised entirely of L‐type current. Inhibited currents displayed slowed activation kinetics and voltage dependence, characteristics of membrane‐delimited inhibition. Current inhibition was blocked by the selective M2 receptor antagonist, methoctramine (METH; 100 nM), or following pertussis toxin (PTX) pretreatment. Activation of the second pathway inhibited both peak and long‐lasting tail currents. This pathway was voltage‐independent, PTX‐insensitive, but sensitive to internal Ca2+ chelator concentration. Muscarinic toxin 7 (MT‐7, 100 nM), an irreversible M1 receptor antagonist, eliminated this inhibition. Oxo‐M (100 μM) decreased L‐ and N‐type channel activities in cell‐attached patches, indicating that a diffusible second messenger is involved. BeCh (100 μM) also inhibited whole cell currents via the membrane‐delimited pathway. Blocking M4 receptors with 100 nM pirenzepine (in the presence of MT‐7) had no effect, while antagonizing M2 receptors with METH abolished inhibition. Concentrations of BeCh as high as 3 mM failed to inhibit either peak or long‐lasting tail currents following PTX pretreatment. These results indicate that BeCh may be an effective tool for selectively activating M2 receptor stimulation of the membrane‐delimited pathway.

Role of N- and L-type calcium channels in depolarization-induced activation of tyrosine hydroxylase and release of norepinephrine by sympathetic cell bodies and nerve terminals.

Multiple types of voltage-activated calcium (Ca(2+)) channels are present in all nerve cells examined so far; however, the underlying functional consequences of their presence is often unclear. We have examined the contribution of Ca(2+) influx through N- and L- type voltage-activated Ca(2+) channels in sympathetic neurons to the depolarization-induced activation of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme in norepinephrine (NE) synthesis, and the depolarization-induced release of NE. Superior cervical ganglia (SCG) were decentralized 4 days prior to their use to eliminate the possibility of indirect effects of depolarization via preganglionic nerve terminals. The presence of both omega-conotoxin GVIA (1 microM), a specific blocker of N-type channels, and nimodipine (1 microM), a specific blocker of L-type Ca(2+) channels, was necessary to inhibit completely the stimulation of TH activity by 55 mM K(+), indicating that Ca(2+) influx through both types of channels contributes to enzyme activation. In contrast, K(+) stimulation of TH activity in nerve fibers and terminals in the iris could be inhibited completely by omega-conotoxin GVIA alone and was unaffected by nimodipine as previously shown. K(+) stimulation of NE release from both ganglia and irises was also blocked completely when omega-conotoxin GVIA was included in the medium, while nimodipine had no significant effect in either tissue. These results indicate that particular cellular processes in specific areas of a neuron are differentially dependent on Ca(2+) influx through N- and L-type Ca(2+) channels.