Ann Sanson

Does Shy-Inhibited Temperament in Childhood Lead to Anxiety Problems in Adolescence?

OBJECTIVE To assess the relationships between shy-inhibited temperament in childhood and anxiety problems in early adolescence using a prospective, longitudinal data set from a large community sample. METHOD Relationships between shyness ratings on age-appropriate temperament scales and anxiety problems were analyzed, looking both forward and backward in time from infancy to adolescence. RESULTS Forty-two percent of children rated as shy on 6 or more occasions over 8 surveys in childhood had anxiety problems in adolescence, compared with 11% who were never shy. Persistence of shyness and its presence in middle childhood increased risk for anxiety. A highly reactive temperament added to shyness did not increase the risk for anxiety. Few children with an anxiety diagnosis in early adolescence had a history of shyness. CONCLUSIONS Prediction from childhood shyness to adolescent anxiety disorder is modest but clinically meaningful in a community sample. However, most shy children did not develop an anxiety disorder and most adolescents with anxiety disorders had not been especially shy.

The Association of Behavioural Adjustment to Temperament, Parenting and Family Characteristics among 5-Year-Old Children

The objective of this study was to identify specific temperament, parenting, and family variables, and their interactions, which predict problem behaviours and social skills in children. The subjects were 74 5–6 year old children (34 boys, 40 girls). Results showed different combinations of variables predicted each behavioural outcome, and the childs ‘goodness of fit’ in the home was a strong predictor of externalising behaviour and social skills. An interaction between temperamental inflexibility and punitive parenting in the development of parent-rated externalising behaviour problems was found. This study highlights the value of using specific indices of temperament, parenting and family functioning and of pursuing interaction effects in the prediction of childrens behavioural development.

The structure of infant temperament: Factor analysis of the revised infant temperament questionnaire☆

Abstract Factor analyses of the Carey and McDevitt (1978) Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire (RITQ) with a representative sample of 2,443 Australian infants provided limited empirical support for its 9-dimension structure and indicated considerable redundancy in the scale. Of the 9 dimensions, only Rhythmicity and Persistence emerged as relatively pure factors. The other factors were formed from various combinations or divisions of the dimensions. Five infant temperament factors, Approach, Rhythmicity, Cooperation/Manageability, Activity/Reactivity, and Irritability, were chosen for the development of a short form (SITQ). This short form showed good internal consistency and replicability across subsamples of the total group, A 3-factor composite scale was also developed that allowed measurement of an easy to difficult continuum that was strongly related to concurrent behavior problems. Good test-retest reliability was demonstrated for both the 5 separate scales and the composite scale. Although similarities can be shown between the SITQ and various other infant temperament scales, the SITQ has the advantages of parsimony and a firm empirical basis.

Dimensions of early childhood behavior problems : Stability and predictors of change from 18 to 30 months

The prevalence, structure, stability, and predictors of change in early behavior problems were examined in a population-based sample of Norwegian children at 18 and 30 months of age (N = 750). A clear factor structure involving four dimensions emerged at both assessment times: Two factors were characterized by externalizing behaviors and were labeled Social Adjustment and Overactive-Inattentive; one factor tapped internalizing problems and was labeled Emotional Adjustment; and the fourth, related to general immaturity, was labeled Regulation. Specific patterns of child and family risk factors were associated with stability and change over the two time points for each factor. Children with stable problems had the most problematic characteristics on all significant predictors, followed by children with problems at one, but not both, time points. The data suggest that it is possible to identify risk factors for stable problems at 18 months, allowing some prediction of those children whose problems will persist over early childhood. Since specific risk factors emerged for specific types of behavior problems, the results may provide some much-needed guidance to early intervention efforts.

Stability of Maternally Reported Temperament from Infancy to 8 Years.

This study explores the stability of temperament, measured by maternal report, from infancy to 8 years in a longitudinal sample of 450 children. Prior questionnaire-based, factor-analytic studies of stability have usually assumed that temperament dimensions show continuity during development and that, where the same temperament factors emerge at multiple measurement occasions, the factors show measurement equivalence. Structural equation modeling was used to test these assumptions. Approach, Irritability, Cooperation-Manageability, Inflexibility, Rhythmicity, and Persistence factors showed substantial continuity from infancy to 8 years. The levels of stability found were substantially higher than has generally been reported. Approach and Rhythmicity showed the highest stability over the full age range, whereas Inflexibility showed the highest absolute level of stability.

Longitudinal Predictors of Behavioural Adjustment in Pre-Adolescent Children

Objectives: Longitudinal data from infancy onwards, from the Australian Temperament Project, a prospective study of the temperament and development of a large and representative sample of Victorian children, were examined to identify predictors of psychological disorder at 11–12 years of age. Method: Those children scoring in the at-risk range for psychological disorder according to parents, teachers and self-reports using the Child Behaviour Questionnaire were selected at 11–12 years of age for in-depth assessment and comparison with a group of children with no history of adjustment problems. Analyses of group differences using longitudinal data gathered from infancy to 12 years focused on parent and teacher reports on child temperament and behaviour, and various facets of home and school adjustment. Results: The strongest predictors of adjustment at 12 years were previous behaviour problems, along with some specific temperament factors involving self-regulation capacities and mothers overall rating of child difficulty. Results based on parallel teacher data including peer adjustment, and social and academic competence measures were consistent with parent data. Conclusions: Our research confirms the persistence of early appearing behaviour problems in a community sample and the longitudinal influence of temperament factors in childhood. The study supports the need for a focus on early intervention and prevention strategies in the child mental health field.

No interaction between the serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and childhood adversity or recent stressful life events on symptoms of depression: results from two community surveys.

In this study we investigated interactions between the 5‐HTTLPR genotype and environmental risk factors (G × E) on symptoms of depression in two large Australian community samples of adolescents and young adults. We postulated that a significant interaction between the 5‐HTTLPR genotype and environmental risk factors of childhood adversity or stressful life events on symptoms of depression would be observed in subjects with at least one short allele (s/l or s/s) compared with subjects with no short alleles (l/l). We did not find significant G × E interactions between the 5‐HTTLPR genotype and recent stressful life events or childhood adversity on symptoms of depression in our sample populations. However, we did find adolescents aged 17–18 years homozygous for the long allele (l/l) and exposed to persistently high levels of family adversity over a 6‐year period were at a greater risk of depression than subjects with the same genotype exposed to no or persistently low levels of family adversity. This interaction should be interpreted cautiously due to the small number of depressed subjects in the sample with persistently high levels of family adversity.

Connections between reading disability and behavior problems: Testing temporal and causal hypotheses

In this study of childrens reading and behavior problem status from Grade 2 to Grade 4 of elementary school, we tested hypotheses concerned with the temporal and causal connections between these two closely associated disorders. Children with both, either, or neither kinds of problems were followed up over 2 years. While reading disability remained stable over time, there was greater variability in behavior problem status. Our data did not support the claim that reading problems lead to the development of behavior problems. Children who were comorbid had the worst outcome at follow-up, suggesting that behavior problems may exacerbate reading delay. Reading-disabled children were lower (albeit in the normal range) on intelligence, but when IQ was controlled, large group differences on reading and spelling were still evident. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) type behavior problems significantly differentiated children with comorbid problems from children with behavior problems alone. Sex differences were noted in the association, with two-thirds of reading-disabled boys also having behavior problems and two-thirds of reading-disabled girls having no behavior problems, suggesting that pathways to reading disability may be gender specific.

Relationships between learning difficulties and psychological problems in preadolescent children from a longitudinal sample

OBJECTIVES To examine the relationships between learning difficulties and behavior problems in preadolescent children both concurrently and longitudinally, using data from the Australian Temperament Project, and to examine associations between DSM-diagnosed disorders and types of learning difficulties. METHOD Clinical and comparison groups of 11- to 12-year-old children were assessed on behavioral and learning indices and completed a structured diagnostic interview. Longitudinal data were available from earlier surveys of the development of these children. RESULTS Children in the clinical group were disadvantaged on all learning and behavioral indices, and their problems in many cases had been evident from 7 to 8 years of age. There were specific associations between types of learning difficulties and both internalizing and externalizing disorders. Numeracy difficulties were strongly associated with DSM diagnoses for both boys and girls, and externalizing problems tended to co-occur with a combination of learning problems. CONCLUSIONS Behavioral maladjustment in many domains is strongly associated with learning difficulties even after intelligence and socioeconomic factors are controlled. The odds ratios for persistence of difficulties throughout elementary school are extremely high for children with clinical problems.

A longitudinal study of the role of childhood temperament in the later development of eating concerns

OBJECTIVE This study examined the relationship between childhood temperament and the later development of eating and body concerns in early adolescent children. METHOD The Australian Temperament Project has followed a cohort of children from birth, assessing temperament factors such as Negative Emotionality, Persistence, Approach/Withdrawal, and Activity. Using a longitudinal design, the study reports on the relationship between temperament measured from infancy onward and eating and body concerns at 12-13 years of age. Participants (597 girls, 631 boys) completed the Eating Disorders Inventory subscales Drive For Thinness, Body Dissatisfaction, and Bulimia, and an estimate of their current size. Parents described their childs temperament and body size. RESULTS High Negative Emotionality and low Persistence were the factors most associated with risk status over time, particularly in girls. DISCUSSION While it is unlikely that temperamental characteristics per se lead to disordered eating, it is argued that in combination with other risk factors, certain temperamental characteristics may increase vulnerability.