Diana Smart

Does Shy-Inhibited Temperament in Childhood Lead to Anxiety Problems in Adolescence?

OBJECTIVE To assess the relationships between shy-inhibited temperament in childhood and anxiety problems in early adolescence using a prospective, longitudinal data set from a large community sample. METHOD Relationships between shyness ratings on age-appropriate temperament scales and anxiety problems were analyzed, looking both forward and backward in time from infancy to adolescence. RESULTS Forty-two percent of children rated as shy on 6 or more occasions over 8 surveys in childhood had anxiety problems in adolescence, compared with 11% who were never shy. Persistence of shyness and its presence in middle childhood increased risk for anxiety. A highly reactive temperament added to shyness did not increase the risk for anxiety. Few children with an anxiety diagnosis in early adolescence had a history of shyness. CONCLUSIONS Prediction from childhood shyness to adolescent anxiety disorder is modest but clinically meaningful in a community sample. However, most shy children did not develop an anxiety disorder and most adolescents with anxiety disorders had not been especially shy.

The long‐term significance of teacher‐rated hyperactivity and reading ability in childhood: findings from two longitudinal studies

BACKGROUND The aims of this study were twofold: first, to examine behavioural and academic outcomes of children with hyperactivity, using data from two longitudinal studies; and second, to examine comparable psychosocial outcomes for children with early reading difficulties. METHODS Measures of teacher-rated persistent hyperactivity, and reading ability obtained during early primary school were available for children from the Australian Temperament Project and the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. Both samples were followed up to assess behavioural and academic outcomes during the adolescent and early adult years. Family background, antisocial behaviour and literacy were controlled in the first set of analyses to examine the influence of early hyperactivity. RESULTS There were strong linear relationships between early hyperactivity and later adverse outcomes. Adjustment for other childhood variables suggested that early hyperactivity was associated with continuing school difficulties, problems with attention and poor reading in adolescence. Early reading difficulties, after controlling for early hyperactivity, predicted continuing reading problems in high school and leaving school with no qualifications. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that there are dual pathways from early inattentive behaviours to later inattention and reading problems, and from early reading difficulties to substantial impairments in later academic outcomes.

Longitudinal Predictors of Behavioural Adjustment in Pre-Adolescent Children

Objectives: Longitudinal data from infancy onwards, from the Australian Temperament Project, a prospective study of the temperament and development of a large and representative sample of Victorian children, were examined to identify predictors of psychological disorder at 11–12 years of age. Method: Those children scoring in the at-risk range for psychological disorder according to parents, teachers and self-reports using the Child Behaviour Questionnaire were selected at 11–12 years of age for in-depth assessment and comparison with a group of children with no history of adjustment problems. Analyses of group differences using longitudinal data gathered from infancy to 12 years focused on parent and teacher reports on child temperament and behaviour, and various facets of home and school adjustment. Results: The strongest predictors of adjustment at 12 years were previous behaviour problems, along with some specific temperament factors involving self-regulation capacities and mothers overall rating of child difficulty. Results based on parallel teacher data including peer adjustment, and social and academic competence measures were consistent with parent data. Conclusions: Our research confirms the persistence of early appearing behaviour problems in a community sample and the longitudinal influence of temperament factors in childhood. The study supports the need for a focus on early intervention and prevention strategies in the child mental health field.

No interaction between the serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and childhood adversity or recent stressful life events on symptoms of depression: results from two community surveys.

In this study we investigated interactions between the 5‐HTTLPR genotype and environmental risk factors (G × E) on symptoms of depression in two large Australian community samples of adolescents and young adults. We postulated that a significant interaction between the 5‐HTTLPR genotype and environmental risk factors of childhood adversity or stressful life events on symptoms of depression would be observed in subjects with at least one short allele (s/l or s/s) compared with subjects with no short alleles (l/l). We did not find significant G × E interactions between the 5‐HTTLPR genotype and recent stressful life events or childhood adversity on symptoms of depression in our sample populations. However, we did find adolescents aged 17–18 years homozygous for the long allele (l/l) and exposed to persistently high levels of family adversity over a 6‐year period were at a greater risk of depression than subjects with the same genotype exposed to no or persistently low levels of family adversity. This interaction should be interpreted cautiously due to the small number of depressed subjects in the sample with persistently high levels of family adversity.

Connections between reading disability and behavior problems: Testing temporal and causal hypotheses

In this study of childrens reading and behavior problem status from Grade 2 to Grade 4 of elementary school, we tested hypotheses concerned with the temporal and causal connections between these two closely associated disorders. Children with both, either, or neither kinds of problems were followed up over 2 years. While reading disability remained stable over time, there was greater variability in behavior problem status. Our data did not support the claim that reading problems lead to the development of behavior problems. Children who were comorbid had the worst outcome at follow-up, suggesting that behavior problems may exacerbate reading delay. Reading-disabled children were lower (albeit in the normal range) on intelligence, but when IQ was controlled, large group differences on reading and spelling were still evident. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) type behavior problems significantly differentiated children with comorbid problems from children with behavior problems alone. Sex differences were noted in the association, with two-thirds of reading-disabled boys also having behavior problems and two-thirds of reading-disabled girls having no behavior problems, suggesting that pathways to reading disability may be gender specific.

Relationships between learning difficulties and psychological problems in preadolescent children from a longitudinal sample

OBJECTIVES To examine the relationships between learning difficulties and behavior problems in preadolescent children both concurrently and longitudinally, using data from the Australian Temperament Project, and to examine associations between DSM-diagnosed disorders and types of learning difficulties. METHOD Clinical and comparison groups of 11- to 12-year-old children were assessed on behavioral and learning indices and completed a structured diagnostic interview. Longitudinal data were available from earlier surveys of the development of these children. RESULTS Children in the clinical group were disadvantaged on all learning and behavioral indices, and their problems in many cases had been evident from 7 to 8 years of age. There were specific associations between types of learning difficulties and both internalizing and externalizing disorders. Numeracy difficulties were strongly associated with DSM diagnoses for both boys and girls, and externalizing problems tended to co-occur with a combination of learning problems. CONCLUSIONS Behavioral maladjustment in many domains is strongly associated with learning difficulties even after intelligence and socioeconomic factors are controlled. The odds ratios for persistence of difficulties throughout elementary school are extremely high for children with clinical problems.

A longitudinal study of the role of childhood temperament in the later development of eating concerns

OBJECTIVE This study examined the relationship between childhood temperament and the later development of eating and body concerns in early adolescent children. METHOD The Australian Temperament Project has followed a cohort of children from birth, assessing temperament factors such as Negative Emotionality, Persistence, Approach/Withdrawal, and Activity. Using a longitudinal design, the study reports on the relationship between temperament measured from infancy onward and eating and body concerns at 12-13 years of age. Participants (597 girls, 631 boys) completed the Eating Disorders Inventory subscales Drive For Thinness, Body Dissatisfaction, and Bulimia, and an estimate of their current size. Parents described their childs temperament and body size. RESULTS High Negative Emotionality and low Persistence were the factors most associated with risk status over time, particularly in girls. DISCUSSION While it is unlikely that temperamental characteristics per se lead to disordered eating, it is argued that in combination with other risk factors, certain temperamental characteristics may increase vulnerability.

Cannabis and depression: An integrative data analysis of four Australasian cohorts☆

BACKGROUND This study presents an integrative data analysis of the association between frequency of cannabis use and severity of depressive symptoms using data from four Australasian cohort studies. The integrated data comprised observations on over 6900 individuals studied on up to seven occasions between adolescence and mature adulthood. METHODS Repeated measures data on frequency of cannabis use (not used/<monthly/≥monthly/≥weekly) and concurrently assessed depression scores were pooled over the four cohorts. Regression models were fitted to estimate the strength of association between cannabis use and depression. Fixed effects regression methods were used to control for confounding by non-observed fixed factors. RESULTS Increasing frequency of cannabis use was associated with increasing depressive symptoms (p<0.001). In the pooled data weekly users of cannabis had depression scores that were 0.32 (95%CI 0.27-0.37) SD higher than non-users. The association was reduced but remained significant (p<0.001) upon adjustment for confounding. After adjustment depression scores for weekly users were 0.24 (95%CI 0.18-0.30) SD higher than non-users. The adjusted associations were similar across cohorts. There was a weak age×cannabis use interaction (p<0.05) suggesting that the association was strongest in adolescence. Attempts to further test the direction of causality using SEM methods proved equivocal. CONCLUSIONS More frequent cannabis use was associated with modest increases in rates of depressive symptoms. This association was stronger in adolescence and declined thereafter. However, it was not possible from the available data to draw a definitive conclusion as to the likely direction of causality between cannabis use and depression.

Association of a functional polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene with anxiety-related temperament and behavior problems in children: a longitudinal study from infancy to the mid-teens.

A polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) has been associated with anxiety-related personality traits in adults. Initial studies showed that the short allele was associated with higher neuroticism, anxiety and harm avoidance. However, most attempts to replicate these findings have been negative. Because the association of candidate polymorphisms with behavioral traits may vary with stage of development, we investigated the association using participants in a longitudinal study of childhood temperament. DNA was available for 660 children who had been assessed for temperament from 4–8 months to 15–16 years, and for behaviour problems from 3–4 years to 15–16 years. No significant associations were found at most ages. However, at ages 13–14 years and 15–16 years, the long/long genotype was associated with higher anxiety. These findings do not support an association of the short allele with anxiety-related traits in early life.

Reading disability in an Australian community sample

Abstract As part of a prospective longitudinal study of a large and representative sample of Victorian school-aged children (the Australian Temperament Project), we assessed the prevalence of reading problems at the Grade 2 level. On the basis of scores on the ACER Primary Reading Survey - Level B, we designated 16% of children as reading disabled. We did not find the usual preponderance of boys with reading problems. There was a strong association between reading problems and behavioural maladjustment, as rated by parents and teachers, particularly amongst boys. It is likely that this association is responsible for the reported excess of boys in clinical samples. Follow-up assessments of the reading-disabled children two years later showed that few children “recovered” to a normal level of reading. Analyses of the reading and spelling errors made by these children confirmed that deficient phonological skills are particularly characteristic of reading-disabled children. It is suggested that more attention...