Annabrita Hemmes

MYC-Dependent Regulation and Prognostic Role of CIP2A in Gastric Cancer

BACKGROUND Cancerous inhibitor of protein phosphatase 2A (CIP2A) is a recently identified human oncoprotein that stabilizes the c-Myc (MYC) protein. However, the clinical relevance of CIP2A to human cancers had not been demonstrated, but the mechanism of its regulation and its clinical role in cancer were completely unknown. METHODS Tissue microarrays consisting of 223 gastric adenocarcinoma specimens were evaluated for the presence of CIP2A using immunohistochemistry, and the association of CIP2A expression with survival was assessed using Kaplan-Meier analysis. The effects of MYC and CIP2A on each others expression and on cell proliferation were investigated in several gastric cancer cell lines using small interfering RNAs to CIP2A and MYC and immunoblotting. To further evaluate the role of MYC in CIP2A regulation, an inhibitor of MYC dimerization, 10058-F4, and an inducible MycER model were used. RESULTS Expression of CIP2A protein was associated with reduced overall survival for gastric cancer patients with tumors 5 cm or smaller, with a 10-year overall survival in the CIP2A-immunopositive group of 8.1% as compared with 37.6% in the CIP2A-negative group (difference = 29.5%, 95% confidence interval = 12.5% to 46.5%, P = .001). In gastric cancer cell lines, CIP2A depletion led to decreased proliferation and anchorage-independent growth of the cells, as well as to reduced stability and expression of MYC protein. Interestingly, MYC depletion led to reduced expression of CIP2A mRNA and protein. Moreover, experiments with an MYC inhibitor and activator suggested that MYC directly promotes CIP2A gene expression. Finally, CIP2A and MYC immunopositivities were associated in gastric cancer specimens (P = .021). CONCLUSIONS CIP2A immunopositivity is a predictor of survival for some subgroups of gastric cancer patients. CIP2A and MYC appear to be regulated in a positive feedback loop, wherein they promote each others expression and gastric cancer cell proliferation.

15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase is down-regulated in gastric cancer.

Purpose: We have investigated the expression and regulation of 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH) in gastric cancer. Experimental Design: Clinical gastric adenocarcinoma samples were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time PCR for protein and mRNA expression of 15-PGDH and for methylation status of 15-PGDH promoter. The effects of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and epigenetic mechanisms on 15-PGDH regulation were assessed in gastric cancer cell lines. Results: In a gastric cancer cell line with a very low 15-PGDH expression (TMK-1), the 15-PGDH promoter was methylated and treatment with a demethylating agent 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine restored 15-PGDH expression. In a cell line with a relatively high basal level of 15-PGDH (MKN-28), IL-1β repressed expression of 15-PGDH mRNA and protein. This effect of IL-1β was at least in part attributed to inhibition of 15-PGDH promoter activity. SiRNA-mediated knockdown of 15-PGDH resulted in strong increase of prostaglandin E2 production in MKN-28 cells and increased cell growth of these cells by 31% in anchorage-independent conditions. In clinical gastric adenocarcinoma specimens, 15-PGDH mRNA levels were 5-fold lower in gastric cancer samples when compared with paired nonneoplastic tissues (n = 26) and 15-PGDH protein was lost in 65% of gastric adenocarcinomas (n = 210). Conclusions: 15-PGDH is down-regulated in gastric cancer, which could potentially lead to accelerated tumor progression. Importantly, our data indicate that a proinflammatory cytokine linked to gastric carcinogenesis, IL-1β, suppresses 15-PGDH expression at least partially by inhibiting promoter activity of the 15-PGDH gene.

Expression of Cyclooxygenase-2 Is Regulated by Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β in Gastric Cancer Cells

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression is a marker of poor prognosis in gastric cancer patients, and its inhibition suppresses gastric tumorigenesis in experimental animal models. The mechanism that leads to COX-2 overexpression in this tumor type is unknown. We have now shown that inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase by LY294002 suppresses both basal and phorbol myristate acetate-induced COX-2 expression in TMK-1 and MKN-28 gastric cancer cells. Furthermore, inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) by SB415286 induced expression of COX-2 mRNA and protein as well as the enzyme activity in the gastric cancer cells. The effect of SB415286 was confirmed by the use of two additional GSK-3β inhibitors, lithium chloride and SB216763. SB415286 had a modest 1.6-fold stimulatory effect on a 2-kb COX-2 promoter reporter construct, but more importantly, it was shown to block the decay of COX-2 mRNA. In contrast to modulation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt/GSK-3β pathway, inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MEK 1/2, p38, JNK) or the mammalian target of rapamycin did not alter COX-2 expression in gastric cancer cells. Our data show that inhibition of GSK-3β stimulates COX-2 expression in gastric cancer cells, which seems to be primarily facilitated via an increase in mRNA stability and to a lesser extent through enhanced transcription.

Role of RNA binding protein HuR in ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast

HuR is a ubiquitously expressed RNA‐binding protein that modulates gene expression at the post‐transcriptional level. It is predominantly nuclear, but can shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. While in the cytoplasm HuR can stabilize its target transcripts, many of which encode proteins involved in carcinogenesis. While cytoplasmic HuR expression is a marker of reduced survival in breast cancer, its role in precursor lesions of malignant diseases is unclear. To address this we explored HuR expression in atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) and in ductal in situ carcinomas (DCIS). We show that cytoplasmic HuR expression is elevated in both ADH and DCIS when compared to normal controls, and that this expression associated with high grade, progesterone receptor negativity and microinvasion and/or tumour‐positive sentinel nodes of the DCIS. To study the mechanisms of HuR in breast carcinogenesis, HuR expression was silenced in an immortalized breast epithelial cell line (184B5Me), which led to reduction in anchorage‐independent growth, increased programmed cell death and inhibition of invasion. In addition, we identified two novel target transcripts (CTGF and RAB31) that are regulated by HuR and that bind HuR protein in this cell line. Our results show that HuR is aberrantly expressed at early stages of breast carcinogenesis and that its inhibition can lead to suppression of this process. ArrayExpress Accession No. E‐MEXP‐3035. Copyright

A high-content cellular senescence screen identifies candidate tumor suppressors, including EPHA3.

Activation of a cellular senescence program is a common response to prolonged oncogene activation or tumor suppressor loss, providing a physiological mechanism for tumor suppression in premalignant cells. The link between senescence and tumor suppression supports the hypothesis that a loss-of-function screen measuring bona fide senescence marker activation should identify candidate tumor suppressors. Using a high-content siRNA screening assay for cell morphology and proliferation measures, we identify 12 senescence-regulating kinases and determine their senescence marker signatures, including elevation of senescence-associated β-galactosidase, DNA damage and p53 or p16INK4a expression. Consistent with our hypothesis, SNP array CGH data supports loss of gene copy number of five senescence-suppressing genes across multiple tumor samples. One such candidate is the EPHA3 receptor tyrosine kinase, a gene commonly mutated in human cancer. We demonstrate that selected intracellular EPHA3 tumor-associated point mutations decrease receptor expression level and/or receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) activity. Our study therefore describes a new strategy to mine for novel candidate tumor suppressors and provides compelling evidence that EPHA3 mutations may promote tumorigenesis only when key senescence-inducing pathways have been inactivated.

Systems pathology by multiplexed immunohistochemistry and whole-slide digital image analysis

The paradigm of molecular histopathology is shifting from a single-marker immunohistochemistry towards multiplexed detection of markers to better understand the complex pathological processes. However, there are no systems allowing multiplexed IHC (mIHC) with high-resolution whole-slide tissue imaging and analysis, yet providing feasible throughput for routine use. We present an mIHC platform combining fluorescent and chromogenic staining with automated whole-slide imaging and integrated whole-slide image analysis, enabling simultaneous detection of six protein markers and nuclei, and automatic quantification and classification of hundreds of thousands of cells in situ in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues. In the first proof-of-concept, we detected immune cells at cell-level resolution (n = 128,894 cells) in human prostate cancer, and analysed T cell subpopulations in different tumour compartments (epithelium vs. stroma). In the second proof-of-concept, we demonstrated an automatic classification of epithelial cell populations (n = 83,558) and glands (benign vs. cancer) in prostate cancer with simultaneous analysis of androgen receptor (AR) and alpha-methylacyl-CoA (AMACR) expression at cell-level resolution. We conclude that the open-source combination of 8-plex mIHC detection, whole-slide image acquisition and analysis provides a robust tool allowing quantitative, spatially resolved whole-slide tissue cytometry directly in formalin-fixed human tumour tissues for improved characterization of histology and the tumour microenvironment.

Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 causes regression of gastric adenomas in trefoil factor 1 deficient mice.

Cyclooxygenase‐2 (Cox‐2) expression is a marker of reduced survival in gastric cancer patients, and inhibition of Cox‐2 suppresses gastrointestinal carcinogenesis in experimental animal models. To investigate the role of Cox‐2 in gastric carcinogenesis in vivo, we utilized trefoil factor 1 (Tff1) deficient mice, which model the neoplastic process of the stomach by developing gastric adenomas with full penetrance. These tumors express Cox‐2 protein and mRNA, and we have now investigated the effects of genetic deletion of the mouse Cox‐2 gene [also known as prostaglandin‐endoperoxide synthase 2 (Ptgs2)] and a Cox‐2 selective drug celecoxib. Our results show that genetic deletion of Cox‐2 in the Tff1 deleted background resulted in reduced adenoma size and ulceration with a chronic inflammatory reaction at the site of the adenoma. To characterize the effect of Cox‐2 inhibition in more detail, mice that had already developed an adenoma were fed with celecoxib for 8–14 weeks, which resulted in disruption of the adenoma that ranged from superficial erosion to deep ulcerated destruction accompanied with chronic inflammation. Importantly, mice fed with celecoxib for 16 weeks, followed by control food for 9 weeks, redeveloped a complete adenoma with no detectable inflammatory process. Finally, we determined the identity of the Cox‐2 expressing cells and found them to be fibroblasts. Our results show that inhibition of Cox‐2 is sufficient to reversibly disrupt gastric adenomas in mice.

The putative tumor suppressor gene EphA3 fails to demonstrate a crucial role in murine lung tumorigenesis or morphogenesis.

Treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is based on histological analysis and molecular profiling of targetable driver oncogenes. Therapeutic responses are further defined by the landscape of passenger mutations, or loss of tumor suppressor genes. We report here a thorough study to address the physiological role of the putative lung cancer tumor suppressor EPH receptor A3 (EPHA3), a gene that is frequently mutated in human lung adenocarcinomas. Our data shows that homozygous or heterozygous loss of EphA3 does not alter the progression of murine adenocarcinomas that result from Kras mutation or loss of Trp53, and we detected negligible postnatal expression of EphA3 in adult wild-type lungs. Yet, EphA3 was expressed in the distal mesenchyme of developing mouse lungs, neighboring the epithelial expression of its Efna1 ligand; this is consistent with the known roles of EPH receptors in embryonic development. However, the partial loss of EphA3 leads only to subtle changes in epithelial Nkx2-1, endothelial Cd31 and mesenchymal Fgf10 RNA expression levels, and no macroscopic phenotypic effects on lung epithelial branching, mesenchymal cell proliferation, or abundance and localization of CD31-positive endothelia. The lack of a discernible lung phenotype in EphA3-null mice might indicate lack of an overt role for EPHA3 in the murine lung, or imply functional redundancy between EPHA receptors. Our study shows how biological complexity can challenge in vivo functional validation of mutations identified in sequencing efforts, and provides an incentive for the design of knock-in or conditional models to assign the role of EPHA3 mutation during lung tumorigenesis.

Rad51c- and Trp53-double-mutant mouse model reveals common features of homologous recombination-deficient breast cancers

Almost half of all hereditary breast cancers (BCs) are associated with germ-line mutations in homologous recombination (HR) genes. However, the tumor phenotypes associated with different HR genes vary, making it difficult to define the role of HR in BC predisposition. To distinguish between HR-dependent and -independent features of BCs, we generated a mouse model in which an essential HR gene, Rad51c, is knocked-out specifically in epidermal tissues. Rad51c is one of the key mediators of HR and a well-known BC predisposition gene. Here, we demonstrate that deletion of Rad51c invariably requires inactivation of the Trp53 tumor suppressor (TP53 in humans) to produce mammary carcinomas in 63% of female mice. Nonetheless, loss of Rad51c shortens the latency of Trp53-deficient mouse tumors from 11 to 6 months. Remarkably, the histopathological features of Rad51c-deficient mammary carcinomas, such as expression of hormone receptors and luminal epithelial markers, faithfully recapitulate the histopathology of human RAD51C-mutated BCs. Similar to other BC models, Rad51c/p53 double-mutant mouse mammary tumors also reveal a propensity for genomic instability, but lack the focal amplification of the Met locus or distinct mutational signatures reported for other HR genes. Using the human mammary epithelial cell line MCF10A, we show that deletion of TP53 can rescue RAD51C-deficient cells from radiation-induced cellular senescence, whereas it exacerbates their centrosome amplification and nuclear abnormalities. Altogether, our data indicate that a trend for genomic instability and inactivation of Trp53 are common features of HR-mediated BCs, whereas histopathology and somatic mutation patterns are specific for different HR genes.

Loss of Rad51c accelerates tumourigenesis in sebaceous glands of Trp53-mutant mice

Germline mutations in RAD51C predispose to breast and ovarian cancers. However, the mechanism of RAD51C‐mediated carcinogenesis is poorly understood. We previously reported a first‐generation Rad51c‐knock‐out mouse model, in which a spontaneous loss of both Rad51c and Trp53 together resulted in a high incidence of sebaceous carcinomas, particularly in preputial glands. Here we describe a second‐generation mouse model, in which Rad51c is deleted, alone or together with Trp53, in sebaceous glands, using Cre‐mediated recombination. We demonstrate that deletion of Rad51c alone is not sufficient to drive tumourigenesis and may only cause keratinization of preputial sebocytes. However, deletion of Rad51c together with Trp53 leads to tumour development at around 6 months of age, compared to 11 months for single Trp53‐mutant mice. Preputial glands of double‐mutant mice are also characterized by increased levels of cell proliferation and DNA damage and form multiple hyperplasias, detectable as early as 2 months of age. Our results reveal a critical synergy between Rad51c and Trp53 in tumour progression and provide a predictable in vivo model system for studying mechanisms of Rad51c‐mediated carcinogenesis. Copyright