Anne P. Massey

Getting It Together: Temporal Coordination and Conflict Management in Global Virtual Teams

Virtual teams that operate asynchronously must do without mechanisms that synchronous teams have to coordinate their activity and manage conflict. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of temporal coordination on virtual teams supported by asynchronous communication technology (Lotus Notes). Specifically, we evaluate the moderating role of a temporal coordination mechanism, process structure, on the relationship between conflict management behavior and virtual team performance. We report on the results of an experiment with 175 individuals residing in the U.S. and Japan organized into 35 five-person teams. Our findings show that the way virtual teams manage internal conflict is a crucial factor in their success and temporal coordination has some significant moderating effects. New pressures facing organizations have led many to suggest the use of global virtual teams. Simultaneously, recent technological advances are enabling new ways of structuring, processing, and distributing work and communication activities to overcome boundaries of time and space (Boudreau, Loch, Robey, & Straub 1998). In particular, new technologies are providing the means for dispersed (different place), asynchronous (different time) virtual work. Establishing links and connections is no longer a question of technical feasibility. The key question is, how can organizations create virtual teams that work effectively? Extant theory of how teams operate is largely based on work done in non-virtual teams. Among the taken for granted assumptions in theory from non-virtual teams is that teams operate more or less in the same space and time; i.e., synchronously. Synchronous communication is assumed in most treatments of team functioning for instance, in understanding how teams manage internal conflicts that could impede team functioning. Yet virtual teams cannot necessarily rely on traditional social cues and mechanisms, leaving them without a crucial mechanism for handling problems of team functioning. In such cases, the use of temporal coordination mechanisms imposed upon a team can be valuable because it can substitute to some extent for the cues that would naturally be available to members in a traditional face-to-face context (McGrath 1991; Ocker et al. 1995-1996). Here, we perform an experiment testing the premise that the use of a temporal coordination mechanism can improve the performance of virtual project teams, specifically by affecting the way in which such teams experience and resolve conflicts. We draw on small group and information systems theory to examine key social processes underlying cooperative work in asynchronous virtual project teams. We report on the results of an experiment with 175 graduate students residing in the U.S. and Japan. Individuals were organized into 35 five-person teams dispersed across four research sites in the 1 A global virtual team is a group of geographically and temporally dispersed individuals who are assembled via technology to accomplish an organizational task (Townsend, DeMarie, & Hendrickson 1998; Jarvenpaa & Liedner 1999). We focus on project teams defined as time-limited, non-repetitive groups charged with producing a one-time output (Cohen & Bailey 1997). 2 U.S. and Japan. The virtual project teams communicated solely via Lotus Notes, a widely used groupware system and application development platform. TEMPORAL COORDINATION CHALLENGES While there seems to be great potential for virtual teams, there are several fundamental sociotechnical difficulties in execution. Synchronous interaction is an orderly process wherein verbal and nonverbal cues help regulate the flow of conversation, facilitate turn-taking, provide immediate feedback, and convey subtle meanings. In lean asynchronous communication environments, the conveyance of cues is hindered, feedback is delayed, and there are often interruptions or long pauses in communication (McGrath 1991). In an asynchronous discussion, the norm is for many topics to be active at the same time with team members making contributions at different times (possibly on different topics) (Ocker et al. 1996). This can increase information overload and may reduce the synergy of the team if there is no linkage among the responses. In addition, long time lapses between communication events can lead to discontinuous and seemingly disjointed discussions (Ocker et al. 1996). This suggests that a significant challenge facing virtual teams is coordinating the temporal patterns of group behavior (McGrath 1991; Warkentin, Sayeed, & Hightower 1997). Virtual teams must find workable substitutes for temporally coordinating their interactions and flows of information (Ocker et al. 1996; McGrath 1991). Temporal patterning is concerned with the rhythms by which groups synchronize their activities. Three generic temporal patterning problems are inherent in any group activity: temporal ambiguity, conflicting temporal interests and requirements, and scarcity of temporal resources (McGrath 1991). Teams typically use a variety of coordination mechanisms to manage temporal problems; e.g., scheduling (deadlines), synchronization (aligning the pace of effort among members), and allocation of resources (specifying time spent on specific tasks) (McGrath 1991). 3 Past research suggests that coordination mechanisms can encourage and facilitate communication, which in turn tends to surface alternative perspectives, debate, and potentially disagreements (Ocker et al. 1996; Walther 1995). It is well known that teamwork is a communication and coordination-intensive effort characterized by complex group dynamics and the potential for conflict (Putnam 1986; Rahim 1992; Steiner 1972). Past research has considered various underlying social processes that determine team effectiveness. In particular, research has shown that conflict management behavior is an important determinant of group processes and performance (Baron 1989; Putnam 1986; Schweiger, Sandberg & Rechner 1989; Thomas 1992; Van de Vliert & De Dreu 1994). An important first step toward understanding how virtual teams work effectively is to explore how temporal coordination affects virtual teams’ conflict management behaviors and performance. Conflict in Virtual Teams In virtual teams, the dispersed asynchronous communication context renders many of the usual forms of social control in teams inoperable (e.g., direct supervision, physical proximity, shared experiences, social trust) (Jarvenpaa et al. 1998). Virtual teams typically communicate via technology that is lean, low in social presence, and low in interactivity (Zack 1993). In other words, a groupware system like Lotus Notes does not have the same capacity to convey the multiple cues that characterize human conversation. Gestures and nonverbal nuances, cues of social influence, symbolic content, and contextual cues are not captured or transmittable. This makes interaction and consensus building difficult (Straus 1996; Dennis 1996). As a result, effective communication in an asynchronous computer-mediated communication environment tends to require a great deal of effort (Smith & Vanacek 1990; Straus 1996). All of these communication and coordination difficulties create the potential for conflict in virtual teams that must be managed effectively (Jarvenpaa et al. 1998; Ocker et al. 1996; Turoff, Hiltz, Bahgat, & Rana 1993). Thus, while there are certainly many potential interesting factors to study about virtual teams, we focus on conflict management because it is a fundamental issue for effective virtual team performance given the inherent communication and coordination challenges they face. 4 TEMPORAL COORDINATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT One way to address the communication challenges facing virtual teams is to introduce temporal coordination mechanisms to the way virtual teams work. We define temporal coordination mechanism as a process structure imposed to intervene and direct the pattern, timing, and content of communication in a group (Ocker et al. 1995-1996; McGrath 1991). We expect that the introduction of a process structure will change the way virtual teams manage conflicts, with measurable performance consequences (Walther 1995, 1997). Next, we briefly review the relevant conflict management literature and discuss how we expect temporal coordination to affect the causes and consequences of virtual team conflict. Conflict Management Behaviors. Past research has identified various behaviors manifested by team members during conflict (Ruble & Thomas 1976; Poole, Holmes, & DeSanctis 1991; Sambamurthy & Poole 1992; Miranda & Bostrom 1993-1994. We draw on work by Rahim (1983, 1992) and Thomas and Kilmann (1974) that delineates five conflict handling modes to describe conflict management in organizational work groups: avoidance, accommodation, competition, collaboration, and compromise. Avoidance behavior is characterized by evasiveness and failure to confront other parties. People demonstrating this behavior are apathetic toward conflicting points of view and outcomes in general. Accommodation behavior is characterized by an obliging concern for others. Competition behavior is characterized by each party pursuing his/her own interest without regard for others. This behavior involves concealment of information, competitiveness, and negative attitudes toward alternative solutions. Competitive interactions typically involve the use of power and domination as one party tries to force its views on the other. Collaboration behavior is characterized by attempts to identify and achieve outcomes that satisfy the interests of all parties involved. This behavior emphasizes openness to others’ points of view, objective consideration of all information, and shared problem-solving toward a jointly optimal solution. Finally, compromise behavior is characterized by

Do I really have to? User acceptance of mandated technology

Extensive research supports the notion that usefulness and ease of use are primary drivers of user intentions to adopt new technology. However, this research has been conducted primarily in environments in which adoption was voluntary. When technology use is mandated, as it is in many organizations, we expect that the underlying relationships of traditional technology acceptance models will be different. In this paper, we discuss our current understanding of technology acceptance, as well as the notion of mandated use. We then discuss a field study conducted in the banking industry to examine technology acceptance models in a mandated use environment. The results indicate that there are, in fact, differences in the underlying relationships of technology acceptance models in this mandatory use situation. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for research and practice.

Cultural differences in the online behavior of consumers

Understanding how different cultures use the Net---as well as perceive the same Web sites---can translate to truly global e-commerce.

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From 1994 through 2000, Nortel Networks transformed itself from a technology-focused to an opportunity/customer-focused company. By 2000, Nortel was a profitable, innovative leader in the telecommunications industry. The change was the result of an ambitious effort to redesign its entire new product development (NPD) process such that time-to-market was significantly reduced. NPD is highly knowledge-intensive work based on the individual and collective expertise of employees. The primary focus of this case study is on Nortels efforts to reengineer the front-end of its NPD process and capitalize on knowledge assets. This effort was built around a process-oriented knowledge management (KM) strategy, involving a tripartite and systematic focus on process, people, and technology. Through our case analysis we develop a model of KM success by exploring Nortels KM strategy and the managerial, resource, and environmental factors that influenced Nortels success. Nortels experiences suggest lessons for other firms attempting to manage knowledge assets in core business processes.

New Product Development Decision‐Making Effectiveness: Comparing Individuals, Face‐To‐Face Teams, and Virtual Teams*

A total of 411 subjects participated in two decision-making experiments in order to examine the effectiveness of new product development project continuation decisions. Using escalation of commitment theory, in Study 1, individual versus face-to-face team decision-making effectiveness was compared. Study 2, an extension of Study 1, compared the new product development decision-making effectiveness of individuals, face-to-face teams, and virtual teams. A virtual team is a geographically and temporally dispersed and electronically communicating work group. In Study 2, the virtual teams communicated asynchronously via groupware technology. Our findings suggest that teams make more effective decisions than individuals, and virtual teams make the most effective decisions.

Because Time Matters: Temporal Coordination in Global Virtual Project Teams

In this study, we explore the nature of team interaction and the role of temporal coordination in asynchronously communicating global virtual project teams (GVPT). Drawing on Time, Interaction, and Performance (TIP) theory, we consider how and why virtual team behavior is temporally patterned in complex ways. We report on the results of an experiment consisting of 35 virtual project teams comprised of 175 members residing in the United States and Japan. Through content and cluster analysis, we identify distinct patterns of interaction and examine how these patterns are associated with differential levels of GVPT performance. We also explore the role of temporal coordination mechanisms as a means to synchronize temporal patterns in GVPTs. Ourresults suggest that successful enactment of temporal coordination mechanisms is associated with higher performance. However, we found that temporal coordination per se is not the driver of performance; rather,it is the influence of coordination on interaction behaviors that affects performance.

Unraveling the temporal fabric of knowledge conversion: a model of media selection and use

We draw from and extend Nonakas (1994) theory of knowledge creation to develop a model of media selection and use in the knowledge conversion (KC) process. KC is a process wherein an individual is affected by the experiences of another. The outcomes of KC-transferred and transformed knowledge-hinge on the development of understanding. The KC process is enabled via various communicative and noncommunicative media. Because the KC process occurs over time, it possesses a temporal fabric or structure. We explore the practical realities of KC as a dynamic, time- and experience-dependent process. We consider how the temporal fabric of KC creates an evolving reciprocal relationship among perceived media utility, selection, and use of media, as well as switching and/or combining media. We propose and discuss two key factors as determinants of perceived media utility use in the KC process: (1) the temporal behavior of individuals engaged in the KC process and (2) individual and joint experience-based factors. We also discuss the role of contextual factors as antecedents. Finally, we offer and illustrate two primary temporal structures for KC media selection and use: (1) monophasic, wherein KC participants use a single medium at a time, and (2) polyphasic, wherein KC participants deploy multiple media simultaneously. We conclude with a discussion of the implications for the design of KC-enabling systems and directions for future research.

When culture and style aren't about clothes: perceptions of task-technology "fit" in global virtual teams

The rise of the virtual organization in response to global competition and advances in technology has led to the deployment of global virtual teams. Global virtual teams are increasingly commonplace when team members are geographically dispersed and as travel budgets are cut. A global virtual team can be described as a culturally diverse, geographically dispersed, and electronically communicating work group. Virtual teams and the technologies that support them promise the flexibility, responsiveness, lower costs, and improved resource utilization necessary to compete. There is a need for research on how to make virtual teams work effectively when the central medium of the teams process is technology. In this paper, we will explore how cultural tendencies, specifically country-of-origin differences relate to communication styles and how these may influence perceptions of task-technology fit by members of global virtual teams.

3D Collaborative Virtual Environments: Exploring the Link between Collaborative Behaviors and Team Performance

Increasingly, organizational work is conducted by virtual teams interacting across boundaries of space and time. Despite advances in collaborative technologies, members of virtual teams often find the experience challenging and a far cry from physically “being there.” In response, immersive and interactive three-dimensional collaborative virtual environments (3D CVEs) are emerging and purported to address the shortcoming of earlier technologies. How teams will interact and ultimately perform in a 3D environment remains to be seen. In this study, drawing from group and communication theories, we explore the link between collaborative behaviors and the performance of virtual teams working in a 3D CVE. We report on the results of a controlled experiment consisting of 39 virtual teams of 91 individuals. Through cluster analysis, we identify distinct patterns of collaborative behaviors associated with differential levels of performance. Our findings provide a deeper understanding of how the unique spatial and visual characteristics of 3D CVEs may transform virtual work.

Cultural Perceptions of Task-Technology Fit

Acknowledging cultural differences helps companies build the strongest global virtual teams and determine the strongest tools they need.