Mitzi M. Montoya-Weiss

DETERMINANTS OF NEW PRODUCT PERFORMANCE: A REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

Previous empirical research on new product performance has provided considerable evidence that a wide variety of antecedent factors can influence the outcomes of new product development activity. Mitzi Montoya-Weiss and Roger Calantone conducted a comprehensive review of this literature and observed a wide variety of study designs and methodological approaches. They developed quantitative comparisons of the results, which, although cumbersome, provide a look at the persistent exploratory nature of this research. They report a wide variation in results that are surprisingly nonconvergent. Recommendations for broadening the range of factors considered and other approaches for accelerating the forward movement of the discipline are provided.

Getting It Together: Temporal Coordination and Conflict Management in Global Virtual Teams

Virtual teams that operate asynchronously must do without mechanisms that synchronous teams have to coordinate their activity and manage conflict. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of temporal coordination on virtual teams supported by asynchronous communication technology (Lotus Notes). Specifically, we evaluate the moderating role of a temporal coordination mechanism, process structure, on the relationship between conflict management behavior and virtual team performance. We report on the results of an experiment with 175 individuals residing in the U.S. and Japan organized into 35 five-person teams. Our findings show that the way virtual teams manage internal conflict is a crucial factor in their success and temporal coordination has some significant moderating effects. New pressures facing organizations have led many to suggest the use of global virtual teams. Simultaneously, recent technological advances are enabling new ways of structuring, processing, and distributing work and communication activities to overcome boundaries of time and space (Boudreau, Loch, Robey, & Straub 1998). In particular, new technologies are providing the means for dispersed (different place), asynchronous (different time) virtual work. Establishing links and connections is no longer a question of technical feasibility. The key question is, how can organizations create virtual teams that work effectively? Extant theory of how teams operate is largely based on work done in non-virtual teams. Among the taken for granted assumptions in theory from non-virtual teams is that teams operate more or less in the same space and time; i.e., synchronously. Synchronous communication is assumed in most treatments of team functioning for instance, in understanding how teams manage internal conflicts that could impede team functioning. Yet virtual teams cannot necessarily rely on traditional social cues and mechanisms, leaving them without a crucial mechanism for handling problems of team functioning. In such cases, the use of temporal coordination mechanisms imposed upon a team can be valuable because it can substitute to some extent for the cues that would naturally be available to members in a traditional face-to-face context (McGrath 1991; Ocker et al. 1995-1996). Here, we perform an experiment testing the premise that the use of a temporal coordination mechanism can improve the performance of virtual project teams, specifically by affecting the way in which such teams experience and resolve conflicts. We draw on small group and information systems theory to examine key social processes underlying cooperative work in asynchronous virtual project teams. We report on the results of an experiment with 175 graduate students residing in the U.S. and Japan. Individuals were organized into 35 five-person teams dispersed across four research sites in the 1 A global virtual team is a group of geographically and temporally dispersed individuals who are assembled via technology to accomplish an organizational task (Townsend, DeMarie, & Hendrickson 1998; Jarvenpaa & Liedner 1999). We focus on project teams defined as time-limited, non-repetitive groups charged with producing a one-time output (Cohen & Bailey 1997). 2 U.S. and Japan. The virtual project teams communicated solely via Lotus Notes, a widely used groupware system and application development platform. TEMPORAL COORDINATION CHALLENGES While there seems to be great potential for virtual teams, there are several fundamental sociotechnical difficulties in execution. Synchronous interaction is an orderly process wherein verbal and nonverbal cues help regulate the flow of conversation, facilitate turn-taking, provide immediate feedback, and convey subtle meanings. In lean asynchronous communication environments, the conveyance of cues is hindered, feedback is delayed, and there are often interruptions or long pauses in communication (McGrath 1991). In an asynchronous discussion, the norm is for many topics to be active at the same time with team members making contributions at different times (possibly on different topics) (Ocker et al. 1996). This can increase information overload and may reduce the synergy of the team if there is no linkage among the responses. In addition, long time lapses between communication events can lead to discontinuous and seemingly disjointed discussions (Ocker et al. 1996). This suggests that a significant challenge facing virtual teams is coordinating the temporal patterns of group behavior (McGrath 1991; Warkentin, Sayeed, & Hightower 1997). Virtual teams must find workable substitutes for temporally coordinating their interactions and flows of information (Ocker et al. 1996; McGrath 1991). Temporal patterning is concerned with the rhythms by which groups synchronize their activities. Three generic temporal patterning problems are inherent in any group activity: temporal ambiguity, conflicting temporal interests and requirements, and scarcity of temporal resources (McGrath 1991). Teams typically use a variety of coordination mechanisms to manage temporal problems; e.g., scheduling (deadlines), synchronization (aligning the pace of effort among members), and allocation of resources (specifying time spent on specific tasks) (McGrath 1991). 3 Past research suggests that coordination mechanisms can encourage and facilitate communication, which in turn tends to surface alternative perspectives, debate, and potentially disagreements (Ocker et al. 1996; Walther 1995). It is well known that teamwork is a communication and coordination-intensive effort characterized by complex group dynamics and the potential for conflict (Putnam 1986; Rahim 1992; Steiner 1972). Past research has considered various underlying social processes that determine team effectiveness. In particular, research has shown that conflict management behavior is an important determinant of group processes and performance (Baron 1989; Putnam 1986; Schweiger, Sandberg & Rechner 1989; Thomas 1992; Van de Vliert & De Dreu 1994). An important first step toward understanding how virtual teams work effectively is to explore how temporal coordination affects virtual teams’ conflict management behaviors and performance. Conflict in Virtual Teams In virtual teams, the dispersed asynchronous communication context renders many of the usual forms of social control in teams inoperable (e.g., direct supervision, physical proximity, shared experiences, social trust) (Jarvenpaa et al. 1998). Virtual teams typically communicate via technology that is lean, low in social presence, and low in interactivity (Zack 1993). In other words, a groupware system like Lotus Notes does not have the same capacity to convey the multiple cues that characterize human conversation. Gestures and nonverbal nuances, cues of social influence, symbolic content, and contextual cues are not captured or transmittable. This makes interaction and consensus building difficult (Straus 1996; Dennis 1996). As a result, effective communication in an asynchronous computer-mediated communication environment tends to require a great deal of effort (Smith & Vanacek 1990; Straus 1996). All of these communication and coordination difficulties create the potential for conflict in virtual teams that must be managed effectively (Jarvenpaa et al. 1998; Ocker et al. 1996; Turoff, Hiltz, Bahgat, & Rana 1993). Thus, while there are certainly many potential interesting factors to study about virtual teams, we focus on conflict management because it is a fundamental issue for effective virtual team performance given the inherent communication and coordination challenges they face. 4 TEMPORAL COORDINATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT One way to address the communication challenges facing virtual teams is to introduce temporal coordination mechanisms to the way virtual teams work. We define temporal coordination mechanism as a process structure imposed to intervene and direct the pattern, timing, and content of communication in a group (Ocker et al. 1995-1996; McGrath 1991). We expect that the introduction of a process structure will change the way virtual teams manage conflicts, with measurable performance consequences (Walther 1995, 1997). Next, we briefly review the relevant conflict management literature and discuss how we expect temporal coordination to affect the causes and consequences of virtual team conflict. Conflict Management Behaviors. Past research has identified various behaviors manifested by team members during conflict (Ruble & Thomas 1976; Poole, Holmes, & DeSanctis 1991; Sambamurthy & Poole 1992; Miranda & Bostrom 1993-1994. We draw on work by Rahim (1983, 1992) and Thomas and Kilmann (1974) that delineates five conflict handling modes to describe conflict management in organizational work groups: avoidance, accommodation, competition, collaboration, and compromise. Avoidance behavior is characterized by evasiveness and failure to confront other parties. People demonstrating this behavior are apathetic toward conflicting points of view and outcomes in general. Accommodation behavior is characterized by an obliging concern for others. Competition behavior is characterized by each party pursuing his/her own interest without regard for others. This behavior involves concealment of information, competitiveness, and negative attitudes toward alternative solutions. Competitive interactions typically involve the use of power and domination as one party tries to force its views on the other. Collaboration behavior is characterized by attempts to identify and achieve outcomes that satisfy the interests of all parties involved. This behavior emphasizes openness to others’ points of view, objective consideration of all information, and shared problem-solving toward a jointly optimal solution. Finally, compromise behavior is characterized by

Do I really have to? User acceptance of mandated technology

Extensive research supports the notion that usefulness and ease of use are primary drivers of user intentions to adopt new technology. However, this research has been conducted primarily in environments in which adoption was voluntary. When technology use is mandated, as it is in many organizations, we expect that the underlying relationships of traditional technology acceptance models will be different. In this paper, we discuss our current understanding of technology acceptance, as well as the notion of mandated use. We then discuss a field study conducted in the banking industry to examine technology acceptance models in a mandated use environment. The results indicate that there are, in fact, differences in the underlying relationships of technology acceptance models in this mandatory use situation. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for research and practice.

CRITICAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES FOR REALLY NEW VERSUS INCREMENTAL PRODUCTS

Does the development of really new products require a different approach from that of incremental new products? Current research and management practice seem to suggest that any successful new product development (NPD) process comprises a set of key activities, regardless of a products innovativeness. It seems almost foolhardy to suggest that NPD could proceed without proficiency in all of the following tasks: strategic planning, idea development and screening, business and market opportunity analysis, technical development, product testing, and product commercialization. Suggesting that the difference may be in the details, X. Michael Song and Mitzi Montoya-Weiss present the results of a study that examines the development of 163 really new products and 169 incremental new products. The studys objective is to compare the NPD processes and performance outcomes of really new and incremental products. In other words, the study examines the interplay between a products innovativeness, the NPD process, and the products performance in the marketplace. For the firms in the study, four sets of NPD activities—strategic planning, market analysis, technical development, and product commercialization—are key determinants of new product success for both really new products and incremental products. However, strategic planning and business and market opportunity analysis activities play contrasting roles for the two types of products. Working to improve proficiency in business and market opportunity analysis may be counterproductive for really new products, but it can increase the profitability of incremental products. Conversely, improving the proficiency of strategic planning activities has a positive effect on the profitability of the really new products, but it has a negative effect for the incremental products. Overall, the really new products in the study surpass the incremental products in meeting profit objectives. Comparing current practice to best practice, the firms in the study have room for improvement. For both really new and incremental products, the firms in the study do not place sufficient emphasis on product commercialization activities. The participants also need to reassess the relative emphasis they place on strategic planning activities. The projects involving really new products do not place sufficient emphasis on strategic planning, while the incremental projects exhibit a relatively high level of proficiency in this area—exactly the opposite of the order that this study recommends.

Antecedents and Consequences of Cross‐Functional Cooperation: A Comparison of R&D, Manufacturing, and Marketing Perspectives

By breaking down the walls among the R&D, manufacturing, and marketing functions, techniques such as concurrent engineering and quality function deployment can pave the way to more effective new product development (NPD). Recognizing the benefits of such cross-functional efforts, practitioners and researchers have examined the interrelationships among various groups in the NPD process, paying particularly close attention to the R&D-marketing interface. However, manufacturing also plays an important role in NPD. Consequently, any thorough exploration of the relationship between cross-functional cooperation and NPD success must consider manufacturings perspective. X. Michael Song, Mitzi M. Montoya-Weiss, and Jeffrey B. Schmidt provide such a balanced perspective in a study of cross-functional cooperation during NPD in Mexican high-tech firms. Notwithstanding the differing functional goals, objectives, and reward systems present in R&D, manufacturing and marketing, they hypothesize that all three functions recognize that successful NPD requires crossfunctional cooperation. In particular, they expect that representatives of these three functional groups will share similar perceptions, regarding both the drivers and the consequences of cross-functional cooperation. The survey results support the hypothesis that R&D, manufacturing, and marketing professionals share the same perceptions, regarding the drivers and the consequences of cross-functional cooperation. Respondents from all three groups view internal facilitators as the drivers of cross-functional cooperation. In other words, regardless of their functional area, the survey respondents believe that the strongest, most direct effects on cross-functional cooperation and NPD performance come from a firms evaluation criteria, reward structures, and management expectations. Respondents perceive these internal facilitators as having a greater effect on cross-functional cooperation than that of external forces such as market competitiveness and technological change. In fact, contrary to expectations, the respondents do not view these external forces as having a significant effect on cross-functional cooperation or NPD performance. And contrary to persistent reports about friction between technical and nontechnical personnel, all three groups perceive a strong, positive relationship between cross-functional communication and NPD performance.

The Effect of Perceived Technological Uncertainty on Japanese New Product Development

This study develops a theoretical model that examines the moderating effect of perceived technological uncertainty on new product development (NPD). We test the theoretical model using 553 Japanese NPD projects. We found that cross-functional integration, marketing and technical project synergy, and proficiency in the marketing and technical development activities differentially contribute to project performance in high versus low perceived technological uncertainty. Japanese project managers differentially focus the NPD effort on these factors according to the level of perceived technological uncertainty.

Cultural differences in the online behavior of consumers

Understanding how different cultures use the Net---as well as perceive the same Web sites---can translate to truly global e-commerce.

Knowledge management in pursuit of performance: insights from nortel networks

From 1994 through 2000, Nortel Networks transformed itself from a technology-focused to an opportunity/customer-focused company. By 2000, Nortel was a profitable, innovative leader in the telecommunications industry. The change was the result of an ambitious effort to redesign its entire new product development (NPD) process such that time-to-market was significantly reduced. NPD is highly knowledge-intensive work based on the individual and collective expertise of employees. The primary focus of this case study is on Nortels efforts to reengineer the front-end of its NPD process and capitalize on knowledge assets. This effort was built around a process-oriented knowledge management (KM) strategy, involving a tripartite and systematic focus on process, people, and technology. Through our case analysis we develop a model of KM success by exploring Nortels KM strategy and the managerial, resource, and environmental factors that influenced Nortels success. Nortels experiences suggest lessons for other firms attempting to manage knowledge assets in core business processes.

New Product Development Decision‐Making Effectiveness: Comparing Individuals, Face‐To‐Face Teams, and Virtual Teams*

A total of 411 subjects participated in two decision-making experiments in order to examine the effectiveness of new product development project continuation decisions. Using escalation of commitment theory, in Study 1, individual versus face-to-face team decision-making effectiveness was compared. Study 2, an extension of Study 1, compared the new product development decision-making effectiveness of individuals, face-to-face teams, and virtual teams. A virtual team is a geographically and temporally dispersed and electronically communicating work group. In Study 2, the virtual teams communicated asynchronously via groupware technology. Our findings suggest that teams make more effective decisions than individuals, and virtual teams make the most effective decisions.

Because Time Matters: Temporal Coordination in Global Virtual Project Teams

In this study, we explore the nature of team interaction and the role of temporal coordination in asynchronously communicating global virtual project teams (GVPT). Drawing on Time, Interaction, and Performance (TIP) theory, we consider how and why virtual team behavior is temporally patterned in complex ways. We report on the results of an experiment consisting of 35 virtual project teams comprised of 175 members residing in the United States and Japan. Through content and cluster analysis, we identify distinct patterns of interaction and examine how these patterns are associated with differential levels of GVPT performance. We also explore the role of temporal coordination mechanisms as a means to synchronize temporal patterns in GVPTs. Ourresults suggest that successful enactment of temporal coordination mechanisms is associated with higher performance. However, we found that temporal coordination per se is not the driver of performance; rather,it is the influence of coordination on interaction behaviors that affects performance.