Anne P. Underhill

Current issues in Chinese Neolithic archaeology

Every year archaeologists in China discover numerous rich sites demonstrating significant regional variability in Neolithic cultures, primarily from about 6500 B.C. to 1900 B.C. This paper discusses a topic not covered in detail in current or forthcoming publications, the origins and development of agricultural systems. Recent fieldwork in both northern and southern China suggests that initial steps toward settled agricultural villages began circa 11,000 B.P. I review evidence for the cultivation of millet, rice, and other plants as well as animal husbandry in different regions of China. There are several later Neolithic sites in northern China with evidence for rice cultivation. I suggest how future research projects can investigate regional variation and change over time in subsistence and settlement during the Neolithic Period.

Systematic, regional survey in SE Shandong Province, China

AbstractThis paper presents results from two seasons of full coverage, systematic, regional survey in SE Shandong province, China. It describes how systematic, regional survey provides valuable information on change in settlement patterns during the late prehistoric and early historical periods in northern China. Full coverage survey enabled us to discover scores of new sites in the area. Our collaborative survey, the first of its kind in the Yellow River Valley, reveals that a multi-tier settlement hierarchy developed around the large Longshan period (ca. 2600–1900 B.C.) site of Liangchengzhen. The settlement pattern for the Longshan Period is highly nucleated in comparison to the patterns found for the succeeding Zhou and Han periods.

The Early Bronze Age

This chapter assesses change over time in consumption and production of craft goods during the period of the earliest known states in northern China. It considers burials and habitation contexts areas from Erlitou (c. 1900–1500B.C.) and Shang (c. 1600–1046B.C.) sites located in the central Yellow River valley, as well as contemporary cultures in the lower Yellow River valley. The model of social change (Chapters 3 and 4) expects that gifts of food and prestige vessels for negotiation of social relations with supporters and for ancestors should be important components of elite behavior and political economy during this period of early states. An increase in social demand by elites for bronze vessels to legitimize political authority would cause intensification of production. Mortuary ritual and habitation remains should reveal elite privileges in conspicuous consumption of prestigious foods (meat, fermented beverages) and food containers of bronze. There also should be archaeological evidence for elite largesse in providing gifts of food and fermented beverages to political supporters to maintain loyalty and a sense of obligation.

Pottery production in chiefdoms: The longshan period in northern China

Abstract This paper discusses methods in which mode of ceramic production in chiefdoms may be investigated on the basis of ceramic variability (diversity and standardization), direct evidence for production, and ceramic technology. It proposes that the Longshan Period of northern China was characterized by a ‘complex household industry’ mode of ceramic production. The available data from Chinese archaeological publications suggest that mode of production did not change over time during the Longshan Period.

Chemical Identification and Cultural Implications of a Mixed Fermented Beverage from Late Prehistoric China

Humans around the world have shown a remarkable propensity to ferment available sugar sources into alcoholic beverages. These drinks have contributed significantly to cultural innovation and development, including agricultural and horticultural skills to harness natural resources; technologies to produce the beverages and to make special vessels to serve, drink, and present them ceremonially; and their incorporation into feasting and other activities. Molecular archaeological analyses of a range of pottery forms from the site of Liangchengzhen, China, illustrates how contemporaneous chemical data, in conjunction with intensive archaeological and botanical recovery methods, enables the reconstruction of prehistoric beverages and their cultural significance. During the middle Longshan period (ca. 2400-2200 B.C.), a mixed fermented beverage of rice, fruit (probably hawthorn fruit and/or grape), and possibly honey was presented as grave offerings and consumed by the residents of the regional center.

Regional survey and the development of complex societies in southeastern Shandong, China

This article shows that full-coverage regional survey is an effective tool for understanding change over time in regional settlement patterns in north China. Five seasons of survey in the Rizhao area of southeastern Shandong demonstrate a nucleated pattern of settlement around the Longshan site of Liangchengzhen and a clear settlement hierarchy, with distinctly different patterns for later periods.

AN ANALYSIS OF MORTUARY RITUAL AT THE DAWENKOU SITE, SHANDONG, CHINA

For over twenty years, scholars have regarded the cemetery at the Dawenkou site in Shandong as providing important evidence for social ranking and other aspects of social organization during the Neolithic period. Most studies have focused on reconstructing status levels within specific time periods. Recent studies of burials in different areas of the world have shown the utility of examining change over time in mortuary ritual from the perspective of both the individual site and the region. They also demonstrate that it is necessary to consider the ideology and strategies of living people mourning the deceased. This paper examines change over time in the following aspects of mortuary ritual at the Dawenkou site: the mortuary population (total number of graves, age, sex, number of bodies per grave), body disposition, orientation of graves, and variation in characteristics that may be symbolic of status differences: size of grave, kind of grave, and prestige goods. It suggests how scholars can examine change over time in mortuary ritual at Dawenkou sites from a regional perspective. This procedure could reveal insights about change over time in sociopolitical organization and ideology. Burials from the Dawenkou Culture are very important, since habitation remains are not abundant or reported in as much detail. Data from the Chinese Neolithic period can make an important contribution to theoretical and methodological debates among archaeologists in many areas about analysis of burials.

The Middle and Late Neolithic Periods of China: Major Themes, Unresolved Issues, and Suggestions for Future Research

This chapter discusses interpretations of evidence about settlement patterns, development of urbanism, ritual activities, and craft goods from the Middle and Late Neolithic Periods of China. The focus is on sites from the central Yellow River Valley, lower Yellow River Valley, central Yangzi River Valley, and lower Yangzi River Valley. It makes suggestions for future research and argues for intensive studies of individual regions in order to highlight variation in political, economic, and social organization.

Hunting with Talc

Abstract Collaborative excavations by the Shandong University and Field Museum at the Longshan Period site of Liangchengzhen in eastern Shandong Province, China have uncovered over 200 projectile points constructed from several prevalent material types of varying hardness. The majority of the points were finished by grinding. The smaller percentage were finished by pressure flaking. Raw materials utilized in projectile point manufacture included chlorite schist, chert and talc schist. To better understand their efficiency as projectile weapons, several of the points were replicated and tested in well controlled penetration experiments. While it is argued that talc schist projectile points could have functioned as weapons, they were also likely highly symbolic tools constructed and used for ceremonial or other non-utilitarian purposes.

The Gift of Food in Ancient China

Chapter 3 discussed cross-cultural patterns of feasting and acquisition of craft goods to outline different possible pathways to change in degree of social inequality and change in craft production during the late Neolithic period and early Bronze Age of northern China. The present chapter reviews ethnographic and historical data from China to build on these test expectations. The chapter begins with modern examples of feasting in China and the use of containers in residential life and mortuary ritual. Then it considers textual data about social demand for containers in the early historic period. The records show clearly that food has been central in negotiating social relations, for both descent groups and individuals.