Anne Shaffer

Adolescent sexual risk behavior: a multi-system perspective

Adolescents are at high risk for a number of negative health consequences associated with early and unsafe sexual activity, including infection with human immunodeficiency virus, other sexually transmitted diseases, and unintended pregnancy. As a result, researchers have attempted to identify those factors that influence adolescent sexual risk behavior so that meaningful prevention and intervention programs may be developed. We propose that research efforts so far have been hampered by the adoption of models and perspectives that are narrow and do not adequately capture the complexity associated with the adolescent sexual experience. In this article, we review the recent literature (i.e., 1990-1999) pertaining to the correlates of adolescent sexual risk-taking, and organize the findings into a multisystemic perspective. Factors from the self, family, and extrafamilial systems of influence are discussed. We also consider several methodological problems that limit the literatures current scope, and consider implications of the adoption of a multisystemic framework for future research endeavors. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the available research for practitioners working to reduce sexual risk behavior among adolescents.

The relation of emotional maltreatment to early adolescent competence: Developmental processes in a prospective study

OBJECTIVES This investigation examined developmental pathways between childhood emotional maltreatment and adaptational outcomes in early adolescence. This study utilized a developmental psychopathology perspective in adopting a multidimensional approach to the assessment of different forms of emotional maltreatment and later adjustment outcomes. Specifically, emotional abuse (i.e., verbal criticism, hostility) and emotional neglect (i.e., psychological unavailability) were compared using a process-level analytic approach to examine if and how different forms of emotional maltreatment would contribute to adolescent adjustment via aggression and social withdrawal in middle childhood. METHODS The current study sample is drawn from a longitudinal, prospective study of a high-risk community sample (N=196), incorporating a multi-method and multi-informant design. Multiple mediator models were tested via bootstrapping regression techniques. RESULTS Bivariate correlations revealed that both emotional neglect and emotional abuse were associated with increased aggression and social withdrawal in middle childhood, and lower ratings of socioemotional competence in early adolescence. However, the mediational model, which controlled for child gender and concurrent physical and sexual maltreatment, was only significant for the contribution of emotional abuse to lower adolescent competence via social withdrawal in middle childhood. Post hoc analyses revealed that this association was only significant for boys. CONCLUSIONS While social withdrawal in middle childhood significantly explained the observed relation between emotional abuse and decreased competence in adolescence, this process did not emerge as salient in understanding the relation between emotional neglect and adolescent adaptation. Furthermore, these developmental processes appeared to vary by gender. The results are in need of replication and extension to other outcome domains, but represent an important contribution to the empirical study of specific forms of emotional maltreatment. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS Emotional maltreatment is generally overlooked and unrecognized as compared to physical or sexual forms of maltreatment. This study adds to the accumulating empirical evidence that the effects of emotional maltreatment are disabling, enduring, and should be carefully assessed by clinicians. Furthermore, this assessment should specify the particular form of emotional maltreatment that has occurred, as the results of the study indicate that developmental processes and adjustment outcomes may vary according the type of emotional maltreatment (i.e., emotional abuse, emotional neglect) that is experienced. Finally, clinicians must recognize that a single maltreatment type may vary in its impact on subsequent adjustment, as significant gender differences emerged in the current study that point to the role of individual differences that warrant further investigation.

Intergenerational Continuity in Parenting Quality: The Mediating Role of Social Competence

Prospective studies of intergenerational continuity in parenting quality remain scarce, with little attention given to the potential role of social competence as a mediator of continuity. This study examined social competence as a mediator in the pathway from 1st generation (G1) to 2nd generation (G2) parenting quality. A normative sample of children and their parents were assessed in childhood, and again 10 and 20 years later. Parenting quality of G1 parents was assessed at each time point with multiple informants, as was G2 social competence. G2 parenting was assessed at the 20-year follow-up for those who were parents. The mediational role of social competence in G1 to G2 parenting quality was tested via nested path analytic models, accounting for continuity and cross-domain relations. Social competence mediated the intergenerational relation of parenting quality; results were invariant across gender and ethnic minority status and were unchanged after controlling for age, IQ, socioeconomic status, rule-abiding conduct, and personality (i.e., constraint). The authors discuss results regarding developmental theories of close relationships and the potential for cascading benefits within and across generations from interventions to improve G1 parenting or G2 social competence.

Coparent conflict in single mother-headed African american families: Do parenting skills serve as a mediator or moderator of child psychosocial adjustment?*

In an effort to expand the parental conflict literature beyond 2-parent and divorced families, this study examined the following questions: Is coparental conflict between single mothers and the individuals who assist them in raising their children associated with child adjustment, and do parenting skills mediate or moderate this association? The sample consisted of 238 African American mothers and their 7- to 11-year-old children. Data were collected at 2 time points separated by approximately 15 months. Results indicated that coparental conflict was associated with child adjustment both concurrently and longitudinally, and that this association was partially mediated, but not moderated, by parenting skills.

Family Variables that Mediate the Relation Between Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and Child Adjustment

This study examined the mediating roles of several family variables in the relation between IPV witnessing and children’s emotional and behavioral problems among 129 low-income, African American children ages 8 to 12. According to the mediational model tested, experiencing or witnessing IPV negatively impacted the following family variables: maternal psychopathology, family cohesion, and relatedness quality, which were subsequently associated with diminished child adjustment. These findings were stronger when child reports were considered and when the outcome variable was internalizing problems. Findings from this study support the value of targeting these variables in the development of culturally appropriate child witness interventions for low-income African American families. Recommendations for future interventions based on study conclusions are offered.

Bidirectional Relations between Parenting Practices and Child Externalizing Behavior: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis in the Context of a Psychosocial Treatment and 3-Year Follow-up

In the current study, we examined longitudinal changes in, and bidirectional effects between, parenting practices and child behavior problems in the context of a psychosocial treatment and 3-year follow-up period. The sample comprised 139 parent–child dyads (child ages 6–11) who participated in a modular treatment protocol for early-onset ODD or CD. Parenting practices and child behavior problems were assessed at six time-points using multiple measures and multiple reporters. The data were analyzed using cross-lagged panel analyses. Results indicated robust temporal stabilities of parenting practices and child behavior problems, in the context of treatment-related improvements, but bidirectional effects between parenting practices and child behavior were less frequently detected. Our findings suggest that bidirectional effects are relatively smaller than the temporal stability of each construct for school-age children with ODD/CD and their parents, following a multi-modal clinical intervention that is directed at both parents and children. Implications for treatment and intervention are discussed.

The Developmental and Adaptational Implications of Generational Boundary Dissolution: Findings from a Prospective, Longitudinal Study

SUMMARY Generational boundary dissolution is a form of parent-child relationship disturbance in which the typical parent and child roles become distorted or even reversed. While recognized as a pathological family process among clinicians, generational boundary dissolution has also become the subject of empirical study. The current paper presents the theoretical background supporting the construct of boundary dissolution, with particular emphasis on family systems theory and developmental psychopathology. We also review the empirical studies of the occurrence and developmental outcomes of boundary dissolution that have been conducted within the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, extending from early childhood through adolescence and into adulthood, with data related to multiple realms of social and emotional development, including questions of intergenerational continuity.

The Relation of Parental Emotion Dysregulation to Children’s Psychopathology Symptoms: The Moderating Role of Child Emotion Dysregulation

This study investigated the roles of parents’ and children’s emotion dysregulation in children’s display of internalizing and externalizing symptoms by incorporating person- and variable-centered approaches. Sixty-four children (ages 8–11) participated in this study with their mothers. Study variables were collected via multiple methods, including behavioral observation and questionnaire assessment from both parents’ and children’s perspectives. Using model-based cluster analysis, children’s profiles with regulating emotions were created by incorporating multiple measurements. Two profiles were identified and applied in a moderation model testing whether the combination of parents’ and children’s regulatory style influence child outcomes. Results showed that children’s emotion dysregulation profiles moderated the relationship between parental emotion dysregulation and child internalizing symptoms, with children who adopted more internalizing regulatory styles display more internalizing symptoms in the context of high parental emotion dysregulation. Implications for the measurement of emotion regulation in the family context, and future directions for intervention, are discussed.

Exposure to Maternal- and Paternal-Perpetrated Intimate Partner Violence, Emotion Regulation, and Child Outcomes

The current study examined the relationship of maternal- and paternal-perpetrated intimate partner violence (IPV) to children’s internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Mother-child dyads (N = 53; child ages 8–11) reported maternal- and paternal-perpetrated IPV exposure and measures of child symptomatology. Results demonstrated that: (a) maternal- and paternal-perpetrated IPV have similar but not identical relations with child outcomes, (b) mothers’ and children’s reports of paternal-perpetrated IPV were positively related, (c) mother and child report of maternal- and paternal-perpetrated IPV related to child emotional and behavior problems, and (d) emotion dysregulation mediated the link between IPV exposure and child outcomes. Notably, findings differed by reporters. Results support emotion dysregulation as one mechanism through which IPV exposure may lead to child behavior problems, with implications for clinical intervention.

A Longitudinal Examination of Correlates of Depressive Symptoms Among Inner-City African-American Children and Adolescents

We longitudinally examined across four years the presence and correlates of depressive symptoms in a sample of inner-city African-American children, an ethnic minority population which is understudied regarding child depressive symptoms. Results, based on mother- and child-report, did not indicate gender differences in depressive symptoms at the onset of adolescence. However, depressive symptoms did significantly predict future child adjustment problems. Implications for the understanding and future study of depressive symptoms in ethnic minority youth are discussed.