Rex Forehand

Adolescent sexual risk behavior: a multi-system perspective

Adolescents are at high risk for a number of negative health consequences associated with early and unsafe sexual activity, including infection with human immunodeficiency virus, other sexually transmitted diseases, and unintended pregnancy. As a result, researchers have attempted to identify those factors that influence adolescent sexual risk behavior so that meaningful prevention and intervention programs may be developed. We propose that research efforts so far have been hampered by the adoption of models and perspectives that are narrow and do not adequately capture the complexity associated with the adolescent sexual experience. In this article, we review the recent literature (i.e., 1990-1999) pertaining to the correlates of adolescent sexual risk-taking, and organize the findings into a multisystemic perspective. Factors from the self, family, and extrafamilial systems of influence are discussed. We also consider several methodological problems that limit the literatures current scope, and consider implications of the adoption of a multisystemic framework for future research endeavors. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the available research for practitioners working to reduce sexual risk behavior among adolescents.

Family communication about sex: what are parents saying and are their adolescents listening?

CONTEXT Communication between parents and adolescents about sex, particularly in minority families, has been understudied; more information is needed both on which sex-related topics are discussed and on how their content is transmitted. METHODS Parent-adolescent communication about 10 sex-related topics was examined in a sample of 907 Hispanic and black 14-16-year-olds. Chi-square analyses were performed to test for significant differences across the 10 topics in discussions reported by the adolescents (with either parent) and by the mothers. The openness of communication, parent-adolescent agreement about communication of topics and differences by gender and ethnicity were also examined. RESULTS Significantly higher proportions of mothers and adolescents reported discussions of HIV or AIDS (92% by mothers and 71% by adolescents, respectively) and STDs (85% and 70%, respectively) than of issues surrounding sexual behavior, contraceptive use and physical development (27-74% for these other eight topics as reported by mothers vs. 15-66% as reported by adolescents). The gender of the adolescent and of the parent holding the discussion, but not the familys ethnicity, significantly influenced findings, with adolescents of both sexes more likely to report discussions with mothers than with fathers, and with parents more likely to discuss any of the 10 topics with an adolescent of the same gender than of the opposite gender. The likelihood of a topic being discussed and of mother-adolescent agreement that a topic was discussed both increased with an increasing degree of openness in the communication process. CONCLUSIONS Consistent with research among white samples, mothers of black and Hispanic adolescents are the primary parental communicators about sexual topics. To facilitate communication, educational programs for parents should cover not only what is discussed, but how the information is conveyed.

Adolescent Sexual Behavior in Two Ethnic Minority Samples: The Role of Family Variables.

Family structural variables and process variables were investigated as predictors of indices of adolescent sexual behavior and risk due to sexual behavior in 907 Black and Hispanic families from Montgomery Alabama; New York City; and San Juan Puerto Rico. The family structural variables examined were family income parental education and maternal marital status while the following process variables were considered: maternal monitoring mother-adolescent general communication mother-adolescent sexual communication and maternal attitudes about adolescent sexual behavior. Family structure variables failed to predict adolescent sexual behavior. However each of the family process variables predicted multiple indices of adolescent sexual behavior and risk due to sexual behavior. Neither adolescent gender nor ethnicity qualified these findings. Differences were however observed among the 3 locations and by reporter of the family process variables.

Cultural diversity: A wake-up call for parent training

The United States is becoming increasingly culturally diverse. As a consequence, behavior therapists who utilize parent training as a therapeutic intervention for child behavior problems will likely encounter clients from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Unfortunately, the influence of cultural values on parenting behavior has been ignored in behavior therapy research. We examine the cultural context of parenting for four ethnic groups, consider the influence of cultural factors on parent training, and propose new research questions to be addressed by behavior therapists in the near future.

Putting Parenting in Perspective: A Discussion of the Contextual Factors That Shape Parenting Practices

Child and family researchers have long recognized parenting as making an important contribution to child development. However, little is known about the factors that shape parenting itself, particularly factors outside the family. This article examines the literature on variables that comprise the context in which parenting occurs, and summarizes what is known about how three contextual factors (ethnicity/culture, family socioeconomic status, and neighborhood/community) influence parenting practices. Implications for future research on parenting, clinical interventions designed to improve parenting, and policy decisions affecting parenting are discussed.

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Standardized Parent Training Program in Altering the Interaction of Mothers and their Noncompliant Children

The purpose of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of a parent training program designed to alter interactions of parents and their noncompliant children. Mother-child pairs were assigned to either a treatment or a waiting list control group. Parent training was conducted in a controlled learning environment. The following pre- and posttreatment measures were collected: clinic observational data, home observational data, and parent verbal report measures. The results indicated that both parents and children in the treatment group demonstrated multiple behavior changes in the clinic and home, whereas the control group did not change over the waiting period. Both treatment and control group mothers demonstrated positive changes on most of the parent verbal report measures.

Harsh Discipline and Child Problem Behaviors: The Roles of Positive Parenting and Gender

This study examined harsh verbal and physical discipline and child problem behaviors in a community sample of 2,582 parents and their fifth and sixth grade children. Participants were recruited from pediatric practices, and both parents and children completed questionnaire packets. The findings indicated that boys received more harsh verbal and physical discipline than girls, with fathers utilizing more harsh physical discipline with boys than did mothers. Both types of harsh discipline were associated with child behavior problems uniquely after positive parenting was taken into account. Child gender did not moderate the findings, but one dimension of positive parenting (i.e., parental warmth) served to buffer children from the detrimental influences of harsh physical discipline. The implications of the findings for intervention programs are discussed.

Parental physical illness and child functioning

Abstract Although physical illness among adults is prevalent, few studies exist which examine the relationship between parental illness and child functioning. We reviewed the existing studies and tentatively conclude that an association does exist. We also delineated variables that have been identified as qualifiers of this relationship, outlined dimensions of physical illness which may be important in the relationship, and discussed possible mechanisms for the association between physical illness and child functioning. The need for more research and the consideration of parental physical illness within a broader family context is emphasized.

Cumulative Risk Across Family Stressors: Short- and Long-Term Effects for Adolescents

This study examined the relationship between number of family risk factors during adolescence and three areas of psychosocial adjustment (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and academic achievement) in adolescence and 6 years later in young adulthood. Risk factors examined included parental divorce, interparental conflict, maternal physical health problems, maternal depressive mood, and mother-adolescent relationship difficulties. The findings indicated both concurrent and long-term associations between number of family risk factors and psychosocial adjustment; however, the results differed based on area of adjustment examined and whether concurrent or longitudinal data were considered. Furthermore, a steep increase in adjustment difficulties occurred when number of risk factors increased from three to four. The results are discussed in the framework of four hypotheses which were tested, and clinical implications are delineated.

Unique and Protective Contributions of Parenting and Classroom Processes to the Adjustment of African American Children Living in Single-Parent Families

The unique contributions that parenting processes (high levels of monitoring with a supportive, involved mother-child relationship) and classroom processes (high levels of organization, rule clarity, and student involvement) make to childrens self-regulation and adjustment were examined with a sample of 277 single-parent African American families. A multi-informant design involving mothers, teachers, and 7- to 15-year-old children was used. Structural equation modeling indicated that parenting and classroom processes contributed uniquely to childrens adjustment through the childrens development of self-regulation. Additional analyses suggested that classroom processes can serve a protective-stabilizing function when parenting processes are compromised, and vice versa. Further research is needed to examine processes in both family and school contexts that promote child competence and resilience.