Annika M. Rosengren

Theoretical and computational strategies for rational molecularly imprinted polymer design

The further evolution of molecularly imprinted polymer science and technology necessitates the development of robust predictive tools capable of handling the complexity of molecular imprinting systems. A combination of the rapid growth in computer power over the past decade and significant software developments have opened new possibilities for simulating aspects of the complex molecular imprinting process. We present here a survey of the current status of the use of in silico-based approaches to aspects of molecular imprinting. Finally, we highlight areas where ongoing and future efforts should yield information critical to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms sufficient to permit the rational design of molecularly imprinted polymers.

Rational design of biomimetic molecularly imprinted materials: theoretical and computational strategies for guiding nanoscale structured polymer development

In principle, molecularly imprinted polymer science and technology provides a means for ready access to nano-structured polymeric materials of predetermined selectivity. The versatility of the technique has brought it to the attention of many working with the development of nanomaterials with biological or biomimetic properties for use as therapeutics or in medical devices. Nonetheless, the further evolution of the field necessitates the development of robust predictive tools capable of handling the complexity of molecular imprinting systems. The rapid growth in computer power and software over the past decade has opened new possibilities for simulating aspects of the complex molecular imprinting process. We present here a survey of the current status of the use of in silico-based approaches to aspects of molecular imprinting. Finally, we highlight areas where ongoing and future efforts should yield information critical to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms sufficient to permit the rational design of molecularly imprinted polymers.

Synthetic human serum albumin Sudlow I binding site mimics.

Here, we report the design, synthesis, and characterization of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) derived mimics of the human serum albumin (HSA) Sudlow I site-the binding site for the anticoagulant warfarin. MIP design was based upon a combination of experimental ((1)H NMR) and computational (molecular dynamics) methods. Two MIPs and corresponding nonimprinted reference polymers were synthesized and characterized (scanning electron microscopy; nitrogen sorption; and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy). MIP-ligand recognition was examined using radioligand binding studies, where the largest number of selective sites was found in a warfarin-imprinted methacrylic acid-ethylene dimethacrylate copolymer (MAA-MIP). The warfarin selectivity of this MIP was confirmed using radioligand displacement and zonal chromatographic studies. A direct comparison of MIP-warfarin binding characteristics with those of the HSA Sudlow I binding site was made, and similarities in site population (per gram polymer or protein) and affinities were observed. The warfarin selectivity of the MIP suggests its potential for use as a recognition element in a MIP-based warfarin sensor and even as a model to aid in understanding and steering blood-plasma protein-regulated transport processes or even for the development of warfarin sensors.

Consequences of morphology on molecularly imprinted polymer-ligand recognition.

The relationship between molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) morphology and template-rebinding over a series of warfarin-imprinted methacrylic acid co(ethylene dimethacrylate) polymers has been explored. Detailed investigations of the nature of template recognition revealed that an optimal template binding was obtained with polymers possessing a narrow population of pores (~3–4 nm) in the mesopore size range. Importantly, the warfarin-polymer rebinding analyses suggest strategies for regulating ligand binding capacity and specificity through variation of the degree of cross-linking, where polymers prepared with a lower degree of cross-linking afford higher capacity though non-specific in character. In contrast, the co-existence of specific and non-specific binding was found in conjunction with higher degrees of cross-linking and resultant mesoand macropore size distributions.

Warfarin: an environment-dependent switchable molecular probe

The complex nature of the structure of the anticoagulant warfarin is reflected in the diversity of binding modes observed in warfarin–protein recognition systems. A series of theoretical, 1H‐NMR and steady state and time resolved fluorescence spectroscopic studies, have been used to establish correlations between the molecular environment provided by various solvent systems and the relative concentrations of the various members of warfarins ensemble of isomers. A consequence of these observations is that the judicious choice of solvent system or molecular environment of warfarin allows for manipulation of the position of the equilibrium between isomeric structures such as the hemiacetal and open phenol‐keto forms, the latter even possible in a deprotonated form, where in each case unique spectroscopic properties are exhibited by the respective structures. Collectively, warfarins capacity to adapt its structure as a function of environment in conjunction with the fluorescence behaviours of the various isomers together provide an environment‐dependent molecular switch with reporter properties, which allows for the simultaneous detection of warfarin in different states with lifetimes spanning the range < 0.10–5.5 ns. These characteristics are here used to examine warfarin binding domains in a series of materials (solvents, protein, inorganic matrix and synthetic polymer). Moreover, these studies demonstrate the potential for using warfarin, or other switchable analogues thereof, as a tool for studying molecular level characteristics, for example local dielectricity. Copyright

Dielectric constants are not enough: Principal component analysis of the influence of solvent properties on molecularly imprinted polymer–ligand rebinding

The influence of the physical properties of incubation medium on the rebinding of template to bupivacaine molecularly imprinted and non-imprinted methacrylic acid-ethylene dimethacrylate co-polymers has been studied. Principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to identify the factors with the greatest influence on binding. While the dielectric constant (D) made a significant contribution to describing the observed binding, the influence of polarity as reflected in the Snyder polarity index (SPI) was also demonstrated to make a significant contribution. The use of solvents containing hydroxyl functionality in particular was observed to exert unique effects on recognition. The variation in solvent influence on binding at constant D motivates more complex analyses when studying MIP-ligand recognition.

Towards Global QSAR Model Building for Acute Toxicity: Munro Database Case Study

A series of 436 Munro database chemicals were studied with respect to their corresponding experimental LD50 values to investigate the possibility of establishing a global QSAR model for acute toxicity. Dragon molecular descriptors were used for the QSAR model development and genetic algorithms were used to select descriptors better correlated with toxicity data. Toxic values were discretized in a qualitative class on the basis of the Globally Harmonized Scheme: the 436 chemicals were divided into 3 classes based on their experimental LD50 values: highly toxic, intermediate toxic and low to non-toxic. The k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) classification method was calibrated on 25 molecular descriptors and gave a non-error rate (NER) equal to 0.66 and 0.57 for internal and external prediction sets, respectively. Even if the classification performances are not optimal, the subsequent analysis of the selected descriptors and their relationship with toxicity levels constitute a step towards the development of a global QSAR model for acute toxicity.

Molecular Insights on the Two Fluorescence Lifetimes Displayed by Warfarin from Fluorescence Anisotropy and Molecular Dynamics Studies

A series of steady-state fluorescence anisotropy experiments has been performed to demonstrate the presence of a deprotonated open side chain form of warfarin in organic environments. We explain the observed emission-wavelength-dependent anisotropy of warfarin in ethanol, 2-propanol, and acetonitrile due to the coexistence of neutral isomers and deprotonated open side chain forms displaying different fluorescence decay kinetics. To investigate solvent-solute interactions in more detail, a series of molecular dynamics simulations was performed to study warfarin solvation and to predict the time scale of rotational diffusion displayed by this compound. Predictions obtained provide an explanation for the nonzero values in anisotropy observed for neutral isomers of warfarin associated with the short fluorescence lifetime (tau<0.1 ns) and for an approximately zero anisotropy observed for the deprotonated open side chain form, which is associated with the longer fluorescence lifetime (tau=0.5-1.6 ns). Finally, we address the potential use of fluorescence anisotropy for an increased understanding of the structural diversity of warfarin in protein binding pockets.

A Functional Monomer Is Not Enough : Principal Component Analysis of the Influence of Template Complexation in Pre-Polymerization Mixtures on Imprinted Polymer Recognition and Morphology

In this report, principal component analysis (PCA) has been used to explore the influence of template complexation in the pre-polymerization phase on template molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) recognition and polymer morphology. A series of 16 bupivacaine MIPs were studied. The ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA)-crosslinked polymers had either methacrylic acid (MAA) or methyl methacrylate (MMA) as the functional monomer, and the stoichiometry between template, functional monomer and crosslinker was varied. The polymers were characterized using radioligand equilibrium binding experiments, gas sorption measurements, swelling studies and data extracted from molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of all-component pre-polymerization mixtures. The molar fraction of the functional monomer in the MAA-polymers contributed to describing both the binding, surface area and pore volume. Interestingly, weak positive correlations between the swelling behavior and the rebinding characteristics of the MAA-MIPs were exposed. Polymers prepared with MMA as a functional monomer and a polymer prepared with only EGDMA were found to share the same characteristics, such as poor rebinding capacities, as well as similar surface area and pore volume, independent of the molar fraction MMA used in synthesis. The use of PCA for interpreting relationships between MD-derived descriptions of events in the pre-polymerization mixture, recognition properties and morphologies of the corresponding polymers illustrates the potential of PCA as a tool for better understanding these complex materials and for their rational design.

How warfarin's structural diversity influences its phospholipid bilayer membrane permeation.

The role of the structural diversity of the widely used anticoagulant drug warfarin on its distribution in 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) bilayer membranes was investigated using a series of both restrained (umbrella sampling) and unrestrained molecular dynamics simulations. Data collected from unrestrained simulations revealed favorable positions for neutral isomers of warfarin, the open side chain form (OCO), and the cyclic hemiketal (CCO), along the bilayer normal close to the polar headgroup region and even in the relatively distant nonpolar lipid tails. The deprotonated open side chain form (DCO) was found to have lower affinity for the DOPC bilayer membrane relative to the neutral forms, with only a small fraction interacting with the membrane, typically within the polar headgroup region. The conformation of OCO inside the lipid bilayer was found to be stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonding thereby mimicking the structure of CCO. Differences in free energies, for positions of OCO and CCO inside the bilayer membrane, as compared to positions in the aqueous phase, were -97 and -146 kJ·mol(-1). Kinetic analysis based on the computed free energy barriers reveal that warfarin will diffuse through the membranes within hours, in agreement with experimental results on warfarins accumulation in the plasma, thus suggesting a passive diffusion mechanism. We propose that this membrane transport may be an isomerization-driven process where warfarin adapts to the various local molecular environments encountered under its journey through the membrane. Collectively, these results improve our understanding of the influence of warfarins structural diversity on the drugs distribution and bioavailability, which in turn may provide insights for developing new formulations of this important pharmaceutical to better address its narrow therapeutic window.