Anouk Smeekes

Mobilizing opposition towards Muslim immigrants: National identification and the representation of national history

This research, conducted in the Netherlands, investigates whether people who do not feel strongly committed to their national in-group (i.e., lower identifiers) can be mobilized against expressive rights of Muslim immigrants when specific historical representations of the nation are made salient. Three experimental studies were conducted to examine whether a national identity presented as rooted in Christianity results in comparable levels of opposition towards Muslim expressive rights for lower and higher identifiers. Results in all three studies show that higher identifiers were more likely to oppose Muslim rights than lower identifiers when a tolerant or neutral historical national identity was salient. Yet, no differences in levels of opposition between lower and higher identifiers were observed in the Christian condition. These findings underline the importance of historical representations of the nation to understand the relationship between national identification and opposition to ethnic out-groups.

How a Tolerant Past Affects the Present Historical Tolerance and the Acceptance of Muslim Expressive Rights

Three studies, conducted in the Netherlands, examined the relationship between a tolerant representation of national history and the acceptance of Muslim expressive rights. Following self-categorization theory, it was hypothesized that historical tolerance would be associated with greater acceptance of Muslim expressive rights, especially for natives who strongly identify with their national in-group. Furthermore, it was predicted that the positive effect of representations of historical tolerance on higher identifiers’ acceptance could be explained by reduced perceptions of identity incompatibility. The results of Study 1 confirmed the first hypothesis, and the results of Study 2 and Study 3 supported the second hypothesis. These findings underline the importance of historical representations of the nation for understanding current reactions toward immigrants. Importantly, the results show that a tolerant representation of national history can elevate acceptance of immigrants, especially among natives who feel a relatively strong sense of belonging to their nation.

The presence of the past: Identity continuity and group dynamics

Social psychologists are increasingly interested in the temporal dimensions of social life and in identity continuity in particular. Focusing on ethnicity and national identity we discuss the implications of perceived group continuity and collective self-continuity, and their interplay, for group dynamics. Using the social identity perspective and theories of identity motivation, we show, first, that the need for collective self-continuity forms a unique motivational basis for group identification. Second, we demonstrate that people are more likely to derive a sense of collective self-continuity from groups that are seen as relatively stable and immutable over time (i.e., essentialist in-groups). Third, we find that existential threats to group identity strengthen a sense of collective self-continuity, which, in turn, increases in-group defence mechanisms in the form of negative attitudes towards immigrant out-groups and towards social developments that potentially undermine in-group continuity. Fourth, we discuss empirical findings that indicate that group-based nostalgia for the nation is an identity management strategy in response to in-group continuity threats and that nostalgia leads to immigrant out-group exclusion.

Perceived Group Continuity, Collective Self-Continuity, and In-Group Identification

The current research examined the proposition that particularly perceptions of essentialist (compared to narrativist) group continuity enhance group identification, because essentialist group continuity is more likely to satisfy the individual need for self-continuity. This prediction was tested in three studies, using the context of national identity. Study 1 confirmed that only essentialist (and not narrativist) group continuity increased group identification when experimentally induced. Studies 2 (survey) and 3 (experiment) explored the mediating role of collective self-continuity. As expected, it was found that people are more likely to identify with groups that are seen to possess essentialist continuity (compared to narrativist continuity), because these groups most strongly provide them with a feeling of self-continuity.

Longing for the country's good old days: National nostalgia, autochthony beliefs, and opposition to Muslim expressive rights

Four studies tested the prediction that feelings of national nostalgia (i.e. nostalgia on the basis of ones national ingroup membership) result in more opposition towards expressive rights for Muslim immigrants, because they strengthen the belief that a place belongs to its original inhabitants, and that they are therefore more entitled (i.e. autochthony). Study 1 found that national nostalgia can be distinguished from personal nostalgia, and that national (rather than personal) nostalgia was related to more opposition to Muslim rights via stronger endorsement of autochthony. This latter result was replicated in another survey study (Study 2) and in an experiment (Study 3) in which national nostalgia was manipulated. Study 4 provided preliminary evidence that the salience of autochthony increases opposition to Muslim rights.

The Multicultural Jigsaw Puzzle Category Indispensability and Acceptance of Immigrants’ Cultural Rights

This research introduces and examines the relatively novel concept of category indispensability. It is examined whether the perception of subgroup indispensability for the identity of a superordinate category is associated with majority members’ acceptance of minority rights. We investigated the role of perceived national category indispensability of immigrants for native’s acceptances of immigrants’ expressive cultural rights. The general hypothesis tested is that higher perceived category indispensability of immigrant groups is associated with higher acceptance. Results from four studies provide support for this hypothesis among native Dutch participants living in the Netherlands. Furthermore, the relationship was found to be mediated by a sense of common dual belonging and by deprovincialization beliefs.

When national culture is disrupted : Cultural continuity and resistance to Muslim immigrants

In three studies we examined the importance of cultural continuity for attitudes towards Muslim immigrants. Study 1 showed that perceiving national culture to be temporally enduring predicted opposition to Muslim expressive rights, and this effect was mediated by perceptions of continuity threat. Studies 2 (survey) and 3 (experiment), examined whether attitudes towards Muslim immigrants are dependent on the specific content of cultural continuity. Study 2 showed that a stronger perception of religious tolerant continuity was associated with lower opposition to Muslims, via reduced levels of continuity threat, whereas a Christian continuity representation was associated with higher continuity threat and more opposition. In Study 3, the causal effect of religious tolerant continuity was the same, but the salience of Christian continuity only resulted in more opposition to Muslims among younger adults. Together, these findings illustrate the importance of perceptions and representations of cultural continuity for the understanding of current intergroup dynamics.

The legacy of Nazism: Historical analogies and support for the far right

This paper examined whether perceiving a historical analogy between former Nazi collaborator parties and contemporary far-right parties is negatively associated with support for the current far right. It was predicted that this relationship would be mediated by perceived immorality of far-right anti-Muslim standpoints. A survey study (Study 1) demonstrated that perceiving this historical analogy is negatively related to both electoral support for the far right and opposition to Muslim expressive rights. An experiment (Study 2) showed that drawing this historical analogy reduces both electoral support for the far right and opposition to Muslim expressive rights through perceived immorality of far-right anti-Muslim standpoints. The implications of historical analogies for peoples attitudes toward present-day social and political issues are discussed.

Regaining In-Group Continuity in Times of Anxiety About the Group’s Future: A Study on the Role of Collective Nostalgia Across 27 Countries

Collective nostalgia for the good old days of the country thrives across the world. However, little is known about the social psychological dynamics of this collective emotion across cultures. We predicted that collective nostalgia is triggered by collective angst as it helps people to restore a sense of in-group continuity via stronger in-group belonging and out-group rejection (in the form of opposition to immigrants). Based on a sample (N = 5,956) of individuals across 27 countries, the general pattern of results revealed that collective angst predicts collective nostalgia, which subsequently relates to stronger feelings of in-group continuity via in-group belonging (but not via out-group rejection). Collective nostalgia generally predicted opposition to immigrants, but this was subsequently not related to in-group continuity.

Social Representations of the Past in Post-conflict Societies: Adherence to Official Historical Narratives and Distrust Through Heightened Threats

One of the main obstacles to the cultivation of historical thinking, in post-conflict societies, is adherence to the official master narratives of conflict. We argue based on empirical evidence from three post-conflict settings (Cyprus , Serbia and Croatia ) that such representations of the past and their uncritical internalization that leads to adherence to master narratives of conflict constructs a threatened self and generates distrust towards the outgroup. Such a mentality becomes a major obstacle to conflict transformation and to a peaceful settlement of intercommunal conflicts.