Anthi Liati

Electron microscopic study of soot particulate matter emissions from aircraft turbine engines.

The microscopic characteristics of soot particulate matter (PM) in gas turbine exhaust are critical for an accurate assessment of the potential impacts of the aviation industry on the environment and human health. The morphology and internal structure of soot particles emitted from a CFM 56-7B26/3 turbofan engine were analyzed in an electron microscopic study, down to the nanoscale, for ∼ 100%, ∼ 65%, and ∼ 7% static engine thrust as a proxy for takeoff, cruising, and taxiing, respectively. Sampling was performed directly on transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grids with a state-of-the-art sampling system designed for nonvolatile particulate matter. The electron microscopy results reveal that ∼ 100% thrust produces the highest amount of soot, the highest soot particle volume, and the largest and most crystalline primary soot particles with the lowest oxidative reactivity. The opposite is the case for soot produced during taxiing, where primary soot particles are smallest and most reactive and the soot amount and volume are lowest. The microscopic characteristics of cruising condition soot resemble the ones of the ∼ 100% thrust conditions, but they are more moderate. Real time online measurements of number and mass concentration show also a clear correlation with engine thrust level, comparable with the TEM study. The results of the present work, in particular the small size of primary soot particles present in the exhaust (modes of 24, 20, and 13 nm in diameter for ∼ 100%, ∼ 65% and ∼ 7% engine thrust, respectively) could be a concern for human health and the environment and merit further study. This work further emphasizes the significance of the detailed morphological characteristics of soot for assessing environmental impacts.

Metal particle emissions in the exhaust stream of diesel engines: an electron microscope study.

Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy were applied to investigate the morphology, mode of occurrence and chemical composition of metal particles (diesel ash) in the exhaust stream of a small truck outfitted with a typical after-treatment system (a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and a downstream diesel particulate filter (DPF)). Ash consists of Ca-Zn-P-Mg-S-Na-Al-K-phases (lube-oil related), Fe, Cr, Ni, Sn, Pb, Sn (engine wear), and Pd (DOC coating). Soot agglomerates of variable sizes (<0.5-5 μm) are abundant upstream of the DPF and are ash-free or contain notably little attached ash. Post-DPF soot agglomerates are very few, typically large (>1-5 μm, exceptionally 13 μm), rarely <0.5 μm, and contain abundant ash carried mostly from inside the DPF. The ash that reaches the atmosphere also occurs as separate aggregates ca. 0.2-2 μm in size consisting of sintered primary phases, ca. 20-400 nm large. Insoluble particles of these sizes may harm the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. The DPF probably promotes breakout of large soot agglomerates (mostly ash-bearing) by favoring sintering. Noble metals detached from the DOC coating may reach the ambient air. Finally, very few agglomerates of Fe-oxide nanoparticles form newly from engine wear and escape into the atmosphere.

Soot and Ash Layer Characteristics in Ceramic Diesel Particulate Filters

Detailed investigation of the morphology, internal structure and oxidative reactivity of PM (ash and soot) trapped in a loaded, uncoated, ca. 30cm long DPF made of SiC, used on a small truck engine operating on a test bench for ca. 250 hours without fuel borne additive revealed the following: ash PM accumulates at the outflow part of the DPF after repeated regenerations, filling up ca. 15% of the effective filter volume. The ash shows a tendency to accumulate more at central over periphery segments, probably following the corresponding differences in the flow rate pattern of the exhaust stream. The amount of ash diminishes significantly towards inflow and becomes minor at ca. 10cm from filter inlet. Soot occurs as aggregates forming a coherent ‘cake’ deposited only in inflow channels. Outlet channels are completely devoid of any deposited material. HRTEM studies show that soot forms aggregates consisting of individual, nearly spherical particles with an average size of 24nm in diameter. The internal particle structure consists of an outer part with nearly concentric alternating lamellae and an amorphous core. Raman spectra of the soot reveal a certain degree of crystallinity and are in line with spectra reported for carbon blacks produced at high temperatures exhibiting low surface area but high degree of ordered structure.

Ultrafine particle emissions from modern Gasoline and Diesel vehicles: An electron microscopic perspective

Ultrafine (<100 nm) particles related to traffic are of high environmental and human health concern, as they are supposed to be more toxic than larger particles. In the present study transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is applied to obtain a concrete picture on the nature, morphology and chemical composition of non-volatile ultrafine particles in the exhaust of state-of-the-art, Euro 6b, Gasoline and Diesel vehicles. The particles were collected directly on TEM grids, at the tailpipe, downstream of the after-treatment system, during the entire duration of typical driving cycles on the chassis dynamometer. Based on TEM imaging coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, numerous ultrafine particles could be identified, imaged and analyzed chemically. Particles <10 nm were rarely detected. The ultrafine particles can be distinguished into the following types: soot, ash-bearing soot and ash. Ash consists of Ca, P, Mg, Zn, Fe, S, and minor Sn compounds. Most elements originate from lubricating oil additives; Sn and at least part of Fe are products of engine wear; minor W ± Si-bearing nearly spherical particles in Diesel exhaust derive from catalytic coating material. Ultrafine ash particles predominate over ultrafine soot or are nearly equal in amount, in contrast to emissions of larger sizes where soot is by far the prevalent particle type. This is probably due to the low ash amount per volume fraction in the total emissions, which does not favor formation of large ash agglomerates, opposite to soot, which is abundant and thus easily forms agglomerates of sizes larger than those of the ultrafine range. No significant differences of ultrafine particle characteristics were identified among the tested Gasoline and Diesel vehicles and driving cycles. The present TEM study gives information also on the imaging and chemical composition of the solid fraction of the unregulated sub-23 nm size category particles.