Jan Czerwinski

Reliability of DPF-Systems: Experience with 6000 Applications of the Swiss Retrofit Fleet

The Swiss 1998 Ordinance on Air Pollution Control (OAPC) mandates curtailment of carcinogenic Diesel particle emissions at construction sites [4]. In addition particle traps are compulsory at underground workplaces [3]. In compliance, more than 6,000 Diesel engines were retrofitted with different particle trap systems. Many traps surpassed 99% filtration efficiency, from the beginning, and secondary emissions were mostly prevented. However, trap failure due to mechanical and thermal damage was initially rather high at about 10%. By Y-2000 the failure rate was halved to about 6%. Thanks to focussed improvements, the Y2003 statistics show yearly failures of “only” about 2%. The Swiss target is to retrofit 15,000 construction machines with traps, fully compliant with environmental directives, having 5,000 operating hours durability and failure rates below 1% . Fig1: Contribution of on-road and off-road Diesel engines to particle emissions in Switzerland. Note the relatively high impact of construction site machines [19], despite much fewer engines than in trucks and agriculture tractors. Construction machines have much higher PM-emission factors than trucks, and are operated more intensely than tractors. Traps must pass the VERT suitability test before deployment. The type certification for a representative example of a trap family comprises very detailed measurements of the filtration characteristics and the tendency to secondary emissions. The trap system is also verified in typical field deployment during more than 2,000 operating hours. Moreover, all construction machines are periodically inspected for emissions and functionality. Trap certification is cancelled when more than 5% failure is detected annually. This paper reports on the filtration quality of VERT-Test compliant traps, both in the new state and after prolonged deployment of at least 2,000 operating hours. The paper examines trap failures, their causes and prevention based on information from manufacturers, retrofitters and independent inspections. The work was performed in close collaboration with the regulatory authorities and the trade association AKPF of the trap manufacturers and retrofitters. The experience with this large retrofitted fleet shows the applicability of traps for Diesel engines of various design, power range and age for all construction machines – the directive includes no exceptions. The particle trap technology is demonstrated as technically, operationally and economically feasible. However there are several important prerequisites: comprehensive suitability testing, careful function monitoring and regular field inspection. Thus the targeted effectiveness and dependability are ensured.

Hazard identification of exhausts from gasoline-ethanol fuel blends using a multi-cellular human lung model.

Ethanol can be produced from biomass and as such is renewable, unlike petroleum-based fuel. Almost all gasoline cars can drive with fuel containing 10% ethanol (E10), flex-fuel cars can even use 85% ethanol (E85). Brazil and the USA already include 10-27% ethanol in their standard fuel by law. Most health effect studies on car emissions are however performed with diesel exhausts, and only few data exists for other fuels. In this work we investigated possible toxic effects of exhaust aerosols from ethanol-gasoline blends using a multi-cellular model of the human lung. A flex-fuel passenger car was driven on a chassis dynamometer and fueled with E10, E85, or pure gasoline (E0). Exhausts obtained from a steady state cycle were directly applied for 6h at a dilution of 1:10 onto a multi-cellular human lung model mimicking the bronchial compartment composed of human bronchial cells (16HBE14o-), supplemented with human monocyte-derived dendritic cells and monocyte-derived macrophages, cultured at the air-liquid interface. Biological endpoints were assessed after 6h post incubation and included cytotoxicity, pro-inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage. Filtered air was applied to control cells in parallel to the different exhausts; for comparison an exposure to diesel exhaust was also included in the study. No differences were measured for the volatile compounds, i.e. CO, NOx, and T.HC for the different ethanol supplemented exhausts. Average particle number were 6×102 #/cm3 (E0), 1×105 #/cm3 (E10), 3×103 #/cm3 (E85), and 2.8×106 #/cm3 (diesel). In ethanol-gasoline exposure conditions no cytotoxicity and no morphological changes were observed in the lung cell cultures, in addition no oxidative stress - as analyzed with the glutathione assay - was measured. Gene expression analysis also shows no induction in any of the tested genes, including mRNA levels of genes related to oxidative stress and pro-inflammation, as well as indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO-1), transcription factor NFE2-related factor 2 (NFE2L2), and NAD(P)H dehydrogenase [quinone] 1 (NQO1). Finally, no DNA damage was observed with the OxyDNA assay. On the other hand, cell death, oxidative stress, as well as an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines was observed for cells exposed to diesel exhaust, confirming the results of other studies and the applicability of our exposure system. In conclusion, the tested exhausts from a flex-fuel gasoline vehicle using different ethanol-gasoline blends did not induce adverse cell responses in this acute exposure. So far ethanol-gasoline blends can promptly be used, though further studies, e.g. chronic and in vivo studies, are needed.

Biological Effects in Lung Cells In Vitro of Exhaust Aerosols from a Gasoline Passenger Car With and Without Particle Filter

Exhaust aerosol from gasoline passenger cars is a complex mixture of a particulate fraction as well as volatile compounds. In contrary to the observed adverse effects of diesel exhaust particles the gasoline exhaust has, however, received little attention so far. The aim of this study was to perform a comparison of exhaust composition and biological responses from freshly produced non-filtered exhaust as well as from exhaust filtered with a noncoated gasoline particle filter (GPF). A 3D model of the human epithelial airway barrier was exposed to the exhaust directly at the air-liquid interface and different effects such as cytotoxicity, antioxidative response, pro-inflammation, and activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) were studied. In addition, genotoxicity was assessed using the Ames test. By an online analysis of the exhaust, it has been shown that the GPF efficiently filters the particle count in both the cold and warm phase when the new European driving cycle (NEDC) was applied. The lung cell tests revealed that the use of the GPF increased the antioxidative glutathionine (GSH) response as well as the pro-inflammatory potential, i.e., IL-8, expression, indicating increased cell stimulation by the volatile compounds alone. The removal of the particulate fraction, however, decreased significantly the AhR activation in comparison to unfiltered exhaust, and the exhaust genotoxicity was reduced as tested by the Ames test. In conclusion, GPF exhaust did not completely reduce the adverse effects of gasoline exhaust in the in vitro test and further experiments with a coated GPF are needed in the future.

(Nano) Particles from 2-S Scooters: SOF / INSOF; Improvements of Aftertreatment; Toxicity

Two wheels powered motor vehicles are an important pollutant source especially in urban areas. ENEA, in cooperation with Municipality of Rome, carried out an experimental activity aimed at evaluate particulate matter (PM) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emissions from two-wheel motor vehicles. In this paper, cold and hot PM and particulate PAHs emissions from eight 2-stroke 50 cc in-use mopeds, (3 pre-Euro I, 3 Euro I and 2 Euro II) and four 4stroke 150 cc in-use scooters (2 pre-Euro I and 2 Euro I), are presented. Mopeds and scooters were tested according to ECE-47 and ECE-40 driving cycles, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The tests performed indicate that particulate matter emission from non-catalyzed mopeds is related to lubricant consumption. In the case of Euro I mopeds, lubricant in the exhaust gases is oxidized by the catalyzer. In ECE-47 driving cycle oxy-cat reduced particulate emissions by about 80%. The two tested models of Euro II mopeds showed very different hot emissions factors so, at the moment, we cannot attribute a unique figure to this moped category. Further investigation is necessary. In any case PM moped emissions cannot be neglected in urban emission inventories. For instance, in Italian urban areas moped PM emissions can be of the same magnitude of those from diesel passenger cars, according to the fleet composition. Scooter PM emissions are, as expected, quite low and their contribution to the PM emission inventory could be disregarded as a first approximation. Two-wheel motor vehicles seem to be an important source of atmospheric PAHs releases. Due to their prevailing use in an urban environment, especially mopeds, further investigation is necessary for estimating the contribution of this vehicle category to the amount of this group of unregulated pollutants in an urban atmosphere and for the development of strategies to mitigate their adverse health effects. IEA AMF Annex XXXIII / 06 A 6 Visualization and simulation of a stratified scavenge process for a 50cc two-stroke engine Dipl.-Ing. Franz Winkler, Oliver Schögl, Dipl.-Ing. Roland Oswald, Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Roland Kirchberger Institut für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Thermodynamik, Technische Universität Graz Tools for development of modern low emission concepts

Qualitätsstandards und Prüfverfahren für Partikelfilter zur Nachrüstung von Nutzfahrzeugen

Zur Prufung von Partikelfiltern fur die Nachrustung von Dieselmotoren mussen neue Wege beschritten werden. Unter Berucksichtigung der gesundheitlichen Wirkungen der Partikel sowie der physikalischen und chemischen Eigenschaften von Partikelfiltern ergibt sich als optimale Losung die Prufung der Komponente selbst, getrennt von der Anwendung. Das gewahrleistet hochste Effizienz bei geringstem Aufwand und gestattet, Worst-case-Situationen und die Bildung von Sekundaremissionen mit zu berucksichtigen. Mit der Schweizerischen Norm SNR 277 205, die das VERT-Prufprotokoll festschreibt, wurde ein erster Schritt in dieser Richtung unternommen, wie der gemeinschaftliche Beitrag von TTM, AFHB, Matter Engineering, AirConsult, EMPA und Tecmot zeigt.