Anthony Worsley

A Population-based Study of Preschoolers’ Food Neophobia and Its Associations with Food Preferences

OBJECTIVE This cross-sectional study was designed to investigate the relationships between food preferences, food neophobia, and childrens characteristics among a population-based sample of preschoolers. DESIGN A parent-report questionnaire. SETTING Child-care centers, kindergartens, playgroups, day nurseries, and swimming centers. SUBJECTS 371 two- to five-year-old Australian children. OUTCOME MEASURES Associations between food neophobia and the food preferences and characteristics. ANALYSIS Analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, Pearson product-moment correlations, and Fisher z test were used to estimate and compare the associations between these variables. RESULTS Food neophobia was associated with reduced preferences for all food groups, but especially for vegetables (r = -0.60; P < .001). It was also associated with liking fewer food types (r = -0.55; P < .001), disliking more food types (r = 0.42; P < .001), the number of untried food types (r = 0.25; P < .001), a less varied range of food preferences (r = -0.59; P < .001), and less healthful food preferences overall (r = -0.55; P < .001). No significant relationships (P < .01) were observed between food neophobia and a childs age, sex, or history of breast-feeding. CONCLUSIONS The study confirms and extends results obtained in experimental research and population-based intake studies of food neophobia to childrens everyday food preferences. The findings suggest that preschool childrens everyday food preferences are strongly associated with food neophobia but not with childrens age, sex, or history of breast-feeding. When aiming to influence childrens food preferences, the effects of food neophobia and strategies to reduce it should be considered.

Influences on meat consumption in Australia.

In a study of influences on meat consumption, over 700 South Australians answered questions on frequency of meat consumption, beliefs about meat and nutrition, perceived difficulties with and benefits of vegetarian diets, personal values, number of vegetarian significant others, use in and trust of health/nutrition/food information sources, and demography. Perceived difficulties with vegetarian diets, the number of vegetarian significant others and beliefs about meat were important predictors of meat consumption. There were differences between men and women and members of different age groups, which should be taken into account when attempts are made to influence meat consumption. For example, health promotion campaigns that focus on whether or not meat is necessary in the diet may influence meat consumption, but would be most successful if directed predominantly at older people and men. In contrast, the meat consumption of women and younger people was strongly associated with more specific concerns about lack of iron and protein in the vegetarian diet. Some of the difficulties people find with vegetarian diets will also apply to plant-based diets generally, and such diets are becoming more widely acknowledged as providing health benefits. Therefore, the findings have important implications for public health.

Income differences in food consumption in the 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey

Objective: To assess the relationships between an index of per capita income and the intake of a variety of individual foods as well as groups of food for men and women in different age groups.Design: Cross-sectional national survey of free-living men and women.Subjects: A sample of 5053 males and 5701 females aged 18 y and over who completed the Australian National Nutrition Survey 1995.Methods: Information about the frequency of consumption of 88 food items was obtained. On the basis of scores on the Food Frequency Questionnaire, regular and irregular consumers of single foods were identified. The relationships between regularity of consumption of individual foods and per capita income were analysed via contingency tables. Food variety scores were derived by assigning individual foods to conventional food group taxonomies, and then summing up the dichotomised intake scores for individual foods within each food group. Two-way ANOVA (income × age group) were performed on the food variety scores for males and females, respectively.Results: Per capita income was extensively related to the reported consumption of individual foods and to total and food group variety indices. Generally, both men and women in low income households had less varied diets than those in higher-income households. However, several traditional foods were consumed less often by young high-income respondents, especially young women.Conclusions: Major income differentials in food variety occur in Australia but they are moderated by age and gender. Younger high-income women, in particular, appear to have rejected a number of traditional foods, possibly on the basis of health beliefs. The findings also suggest that data aggregation has marked effects on income and food consumption relationships.

Teenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast?

The aim of this study was to examine the likely cognitive and social ideological influences associated with teenage vegetarianism. Two thousand adolescents (mean age 16 years) took part in a survey conducted in 52 South Australian schools. The data collected from two questionnaires was reduced in complexity by principal components analyses and the resulting factor scores examined via ANOVA which compared female Non-Vegetarians (NV) with Full and Semi Vegetarians (FSV). FSV exhibited more concern for the environment, animal welfare and gender equity than non vegetarians. In addition, and contrary to our initial hypotheses, FSV reported more concern about their appearance, greater use of TV programs for behavioural modelling, and greater prevalence of extreme weight loss behaviours. The findings suggest a possible developmental link between teenage vegetarianism and eating disorders which may be part of female adolescent identity development.

The cognitive contexts of beliefs about the healthiness of meat

OBJECTIVE The overall aim of this study was to examine a variety of belief and demographic factors that are associated with the perception that meat is intrinsically unhealthy. DESIGN State-wide survey (written questionnaire) that included questions on meat and nutrition beliefs, perceived barriers and benefits of vegetarian diets, personal values, number of vegetarian friends and family members, and use and trust of health/nutrition/food information sources. SETTING South Australia. SUBJECTS Six hundred and one randomly selected South Australians and 106 non-randomly selected vegetarians and semi-vegetarians. RESULTS For all respondents considered as a group, the most important predictors of the belief that meat is intrinsically unhealthy were the perceived benefits of vegetarian diets (all positive predictors). These included: (1) the perceived links between vegetarianism, peace and increased contentment; (2) animal welfare and environmental benefits; and (3) health benefits. There were differences between different dietary groups however. For non-vegetarians, social concerns about vegetarianism (positive) were most important, followed by health and non-health benefits (positive) of vegetarianism. Red meat appreciation was the strongest (positive) predictor for vegetarians, with health benefits of vegetarianism (positive) and education (negative predictor) also important. CONCLUSIONS The implications of the findings for health and other issues are discussed. Judgements about the healthiness of meat are likely to be related to moral and environmental beliefs and, for non-vegetarians, to social concerns about vegetarianism, in addition to health beliefs. These need to be considered if any attempts are made to influence meat consumption.

A Factor Analytic Study of the Twelve Item General Health Questionnaire

Since it was introduced in 1971, Goldberg’s General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) has been used by many workers in studies of the prevalence of psychiatric morbidity (e.g. Goldberg, 1971, Ballinger, 1975, Worsley, Walters and Wood, 1977a). Several investigators however have found the sixty item version too long for their purposes (e.g. community surveys) and have used the shorter versions instead, (e.g. the thirty item version: Goldberg, Rickels, Downing and Hesbacher (1976), or the twelve item version: e.g. Burvill (19751, Goldberg (1972), Tennant and Andrews (1976)). These versions of the GHQ are scored in such a way that each respondent can be classified as either a “probable psychiatric case” or a “probable noncase”. However, apart from this Bayesian relationship with non-psychotic psychiatric disturbance the factors which contribute to the overall score of each respondent are not clearly understood. The sixty item GHQ was the subject of a principal component analysis by Goldberg (1972) and of a principal factors analysis by Worsley, Walters and Wood (1977b). Both studies have shown that several factors, including a major ‘general disturbance factor’ are measured by the GHQ. Similar findings emerged from a principal components

The availability of snack food displays that may trigger impulse purchases in Melbourne supermarkets.

BackgroundSupermarkets play a major role in influencing the food purchasing behaviours of most households. Snack food exposures within these stores may contribute to higher levels of consumption and ultimately to increasing levels of obesity, particularly within socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods. We aimed to examine the availability of snack food displays at checkouts, end-of-aisle displays and island displays in major supermarket chains in the least and most socioeconomically disadvantaged neighbourhoods of Melbourne.MethodsWithin-store audits of 35 Melbourne supermarkets. Supermarkets were sampled from the least and most socioeconomically disadvantaged suburbs within 30 km of the Melbourne CBD. We measured the availability of crisps, chocolate, confectionery, and soft drinks (diet and regular) at the checkouts, in end-of-aisle displays, and in island bin displays.ResultsSnack food displays were most prominent at checkouts with only five stores not having snack foods at 100% of their checkouts. Snack foods were also present at a number of end-of-aisle displays (at both the front (median 38%) and back (median 33%) of store), and in island bin displays (median number of island displays: 7; median total circumference of island displays: 19.4 metres). Chocolate items were the most common snack food item on display. There was no difference in the availability of these snack food displays by neighbourhood disadvantage.ConclusionsAs a result of the high availability of snack food displays, exposure to snack foods is almost unavoidable in Melbourne supermarkets, regardless of levels of neighbourhood socioeconomic disadvantage. Results of this study could promote awareness of the prominence of unhealthy food items in chain-brand supermarkets outlets.

The relationship between education and food consumption in the 1995 Australian national nutrition survey

OBJECTIVE To assess the relationship between education and the intake of a variety of individual foods, as well as groups of foods, for Australian men and women in different age groups. DESIGN Cross-sectional national survey of free-living men and women. SUBJECTS A sample of 2501 men and 2739 women aged 18 years and over who completed the National Nutrition Survey (NNS) 1995. METHODS Information about the frequency of consumption of 88 food items was obtained using a food-frequency questionnaire in a nation-wide nutrition survey. Irregular and regular consumers of foods were identified according to whether they consumed individual foods less than or more than once per month. The relationship between single foods and an index of education (no post-school qualifications, vocational, university) was analysed via contingency table chi-square statistics for men and women. Food group variety scores were derived by assigning individual foods to conventional food group taxonomies, and then summing the dichotomised intake scores for individual foods within each food group. Two-way analyses of variance (education by age groups) were performed on food variety scores for men and women, separately. RESULTS While university-educated men and women consumed many individual foods more regularly than less-educated people, they were less likely to be regular consumers of several meat products. The relationship between education and food consumption was less apparent when individual food scores were aggregated into food group scores. University-educated men and women exhibited higher scores on total food group variety than the other educational groups. CONCLUSIONS Higher education is associated with the regular consumption of a wider variety of foods. Aggregation of individual food consumption indices into food variety scores may mask the apparent effects of educational background on food consumption.

Thought for food: Investigations of cognitive aspects of food

Two investigations were carried out on the ways people construe food, using an approach based upon Personal Construct Theory and Repertory Grid techniques. The first study showed that secondary students employed many more subjective criteria to classify 32 foods than nutrition students. In the second study, nutrition and secondary students’ constructs of eight fruits and vegetables were elicited by means of a pairwise comparison technique. The students then rated these foods along their own constructs. The foods and constructs were related to each other by means of principal components analyses. The results indicated that the secondary students construed the foods in more evaluative and sensory terms than the, nutrition students, who were more concerned with processing and physical appearance. The significance of the results is discussed in relation to the style of thinking associated with adolescence and young adulthood, and to the professional roles of nutrition students. Further work is indicated.

Characterizing eating patterns: a comparison of eating occasion definitions

BACKGROUND To date, many approaches have been used to define eating occasions (EOs). A standard definition for EOs is required to facilitate further research. OBJECTIVE In this study, we examined the influence of differing definitions of EOs on the characterization of eating patterns. DESIGN Cross-sectional dietary data from two 24-h recalls collected during the 2011-12 Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 5242 adults, aged ≥19 y) were analyzed. Eight definitions were applied: participant-identified, time-of-day, and 6 neutral definitions (individual EOs separated by different time intervals and/or an additional energy criterion of 210 kJ). Frequency of and total energy intake from meals, snacks, and all EOs were estimated, as appropriate. Differences were tested by using F tests, stratified by sex and age group. Agreement between different definitions of meal and snack frequencies was assessed by using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). For each definition, linear regression was used to estimate the proportion of variance in total energy intake (kJ) and amount of food intake (g) predicted by frequency of EOs and meals and snacks. RESULTS Among both sexes and across all age groups, mean frequencies of meals differed between the participant-identified and time-of-day definitions (mean difference range = 0.1-0.3; P < 0.001). There were statistically significant differences between mean frequencies of EOs across the 6 neutral definitions (P < 0.001). There was good agreement for snacks (men: ICC = 0.89; women: ICC = 0.87) but not meal frequencies (men: ICC = 0.38; women: ICC = 0.36) between the participant-identified and time-of-day definitions. The neutral definition (15-min time interval plus energy criterion) best predicted variance in total energy intake (R(2) range = 19.3-27.8). CONCLUSIONS Different approaches to the definition of EOs affect how eating patterns are characterized, with the neutral definition best predicting variance in total energy intake. Further research that examines how different EO definitions affect associations with health outcomes is needed to develop consensus on a standard EO definition.