Anton T. Ibbotson

The British river of the future: How climate change and human activity might affect two contrasting river ecosystems in England

The possible effects of changing climate on a southern and a north-eastern English river (the Thames and the Yorkshire Ouse, respectively) were examined in relation to water and ecological quality throughout the food web. The CLASSIC hydrological model, driven by output from the Hadley Centre climate model (HadCM3), based on IPCC low and high CO(2) emission scenarios for 2080 were used as the basis for the analysis. Compared to current conditions, the CLASSIC model predicted lower flows for both rivers, in all seasons except winter. Such an outcome would lead to longer residence times (by up to a month in the Thames), with nutrient, organic and biological contaminant concentrations elevated by 70-100% pro-rata, assuming sewage treatment effectiveness remains unchanged. Greater opportunities for phytoplankton growth will arise, and this may be significant in the Thames. Warmer winters and milder springs will favour riverine birds and increase the recruitment of many coarse fish species. However, warm, slow-flowing, shallower water would increase the incidence of fish diseases. These changing conditions would make southern UK rivers in general a less favourable habitat for some species of fish, such as the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Accidental or deliberate, introductions of alien macrophytes and fish may change the range of species in the rivers. In some areas, it is possible that a concurrence of different pressures may give rise to the temporary loss of ecosystem services, such as providing acceptable quality water for humans and industry. An increasing demand for water in southern England due to an expanding population, a possibly reduced flow due to climate change, together with the Water Framework Directive obligation to maintain water quality, will put extreme pressure on river ecosystems, such as the Thames.

Seeing Double: Size-Based and Taxonomic Views of Food Web Structure

Abstract Here, we investigate patterns in the size structure of one marine and six freshwater food webs: that is, how the trophic structure of such ecological networks is governed by the body size of its interacting entities. The data for these food webs are interactions between individuals, including the taxonomic identity and body mass of the prey and the predator. Using these detailed data, we describe how patterns grouped into three sets of response variables: (i) trophic orderings; (ii) diet variation; and (iii) predator variation, scales with the body mass of predators or prey, using both a species- and a size-class-based approach. We also compare patterns of size structure derived from analysis of individual-based data with those patterns that result when data are “aggregated” into species (or size class-based) averages. This comparison shows that analysis based on species averaging can obscure interesting patterns in the size structure of ecological communities. Specifically, we found that the slope of prey body mass as a function of predator body mass was consistently underestimated and the slope of predator–prey body mass ratio (PPMR) as a function of predator body mass was overestimated, when species averages were used instead of the individual-level data. In some cases, no relationship was found when species averages were used, but when individual-level data were used instead, clear and significant patterns were revealed. Further, when data were grouped into size classes, the slope of the prey body mass as a function of predator body mass was smaller and the slope of the PPMR relationship was greater compared to what was found using species-aggregated data. We also discuss potential sampling effects arising from size-class-based approaches, which are not always seen in taxonomical approaches. These results have potentially important implications for parameterisation of models of ecological communities and hence for predictions concerning the dynamics of ecological communities and their response to different kinds of disturbances.

Locations of marine animals revealed by carbon isotopes

Knowing the distribution of marine animals is central to understanding climatic and other environmental influences on population ecology. This information has proven difficult to gain through capture-based methods biased by capture location. Here we show that marine location can be inferred from animal tissues. As the carbon isotope composition of animal tissues varies with sea surface temperature, marine location can be identified by matching time series of carbon isotopes measured in tissues to sea surface temperature records. Applying this technique to populations of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) produces isotopically-derived maps of oceanic feeding grounds, consistent with the current understanding of salmon migrations, that additionally reveal geographic segregation in feeding grounds between individual philopatric populations and age-classes. Carbon isotope ratios can be used to identify the location of open ocean feeding grounds for any pelagic animals for which tissue archives and matching records of sea surface temperature are available.

Consumer–resource elemental imbalances in a nutrient-rich stream

Abstract.u2003 Pronounced stoichiometric imbalances (C∶N∶P) between consumers and resources reported from nutrient-poor systems potentially constrain key ecological processes, but such imbalances should be less marked when more nutrients are available. In a headwater stream rich in nutrients (total P u200a=u200a 208 µg/L; total oxidizable N u200a=u200a 7 mg/L), we determined the elemental composition and standing stock of the consumer species and basal resources in relation to taxonomic identity, feeding mode, and season (spring and autumn). Compared with previous studies, basal resources had low elemental ratios (C∶N and C∶P), reflecting the high concentrations of inorganic nutrients in the water. Nevertheless, elemental imbalances were still evident between consumers and these basal resources, particularly for organisms feeding on detritus. Some of the variation in elemental ratios among consumers could be attributed to taxonomic identity. Furthermore, detritivores typically were depleted in N and P compared to taxonomically related species with different feeding modes. Elemental ratios of primary consumers differed between the 2 sampling occasions. Collector-gatherers and scrapers had lower C∶P and N∶P and shredders had higher C∶N in October than in May. Basal resources (fine and coarse particulate organic matter and periphyton) made up most of the standing stock of organic N and P, but quantities varied between May and October. The elemental composition of consumers of basal resources appeared to track changes in resource availability. Even with a plentiful supply of inorganic N and P available to primary producers, the availability of elements from food (a combination of quality and quantity) may influence the elemental composition of consumers.

A size-dependent migration strategy in Atlantic salmon smolts: Small smolts favour nocturnal migration

Migration theory states that migration behavioural strategies should be optimised to maximise fitness. Many studies have shown that in downstream migrating Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. smolts, mortality from predation is high and negatively size dependent. The most common predators are birds and piscivorous fish that are mainly daylight feeders. Given the high mortality during this stage we should expect to observe smolts to follow predator avoidance strategies that may be affected by body size. We tested the hypothesis that small smolts have a higher tendency to exhibit predator avoidance strategies (i.e. nocturnal versus diurnal migration) than larger smolts. The number and size of out-migrating/downstream-migrating wild Atlantic salmon smolts was recorded as they passed through a glass-sided channel during April-May, 1996–1999. In all years, the mean size of nocturnal migrating smolts was significantly lower than the mean size of diurnal migrating smolts. Analysis of the size of smolts, during early and late stages of the migration period showed size-dependent nocturnal migration behaviour up to the end of April. After this, no such size dependent migration pattern was observed. However, small smolts (<100xa0mm) were absent during this period. We suggest that nocturnal migration is an adaptive behaviour that small Atlantic salmon smolts have to avoid predation by large daylight feeding visual piscivorous predators (e.g. pike Esox Lucius L. and fish eating birds).

Development of schooling behaviour during the downstream migration of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts in a chalk stream

The downstream migratory behaviour of wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts was monitored using passive integrated transponder (PIT) antennae systems over 10 years in the lower reaches of a small chalk stream in southern England, U.K. The timing of smolt movements and the likely occurrence of schooling were investigated and compared to previous studies. In nine of the 10 consecutive years of study, the observed diel downstream patterns of S. salar smolt migration appeared to be synchronized with the onset of darkness. The distribution of time intervals between successive nocturnal detections of PIT-tagged smolts was as expected if generated randomly from observed hourly rates. There were, however, significantly more short intervals than expected for smolts detected migrating during the day. For each year from 2006 to 2011, the observed 10th percentile of the daytime intervals was <4 s, compared to ≥55 s for the simulated random times, indicating greater incidence of groups of smolts. Groups with the shortest time intervals between successive PIT tag detections originated from numerous parr tagging sites (used as a proxy for relatedness). The results suggest that the ecological drivers influencing daily smolt movements in the lower reaches of chalk stream catchments are similar to those previously reported at the onset of migration for smolts leaving their natal tributaries; that smolts detected migrating during the night are moving independently following initiation by a common environmental factor (presumably darkness), whereas those detected migrating during the day often move in groups, and that such schools may not be site (kin)-structured. The importance of understanding smolt migratory behaviour is considered with reference to stock monitoring programmes and enhancing downstream passage past barriers.

Validation of scale-age determination in European grayling Thymallus thymallus using tag-recapture analysis

To validate age determination from scales in European grayling Thymallus thymallus, the scale-read age of fish was compared with the true age obtained by tag-recapture analysis. A total of 3997 individuals were tagged with visible implant tags and passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags in the River Wylye, south-west England during 1999-2007. Annual repeat surveys were undertaken and collected scales read without prior knowledge of tag-recapture age. Accuracy of fish ageing by scales was highest in 1 and 2 year-old fish but decreased in older fish. In later life stages (>4 years old), underestimation of age occurred and the error in reading scales rose to 51.9% in 5 year-old fish. Age assigned from scales underestimated the tag-recapture assigned age by as much as 3 years. This study suggests that use of scales is an appropriate method to age a short-lived population of T. thymallus inhabiting productive lotic systems. The underestimation of age in older fish, however, needs to be considered in the management of fish stocks because it may lead to undesirable exploitation of population.

Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in the chalk streams of England are genetically unique: Chalk stream Salmo salar are genetically unique

Recent research has identified genetic groups of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar that show association with geological and environmental boundaries. This study focuses on one particular subgroup of the species inhabiting the chalk streams of southern England, U.K. These fish are genetically distinct from other British and European S. salar populations and have previously demonstrated markedly low admixture with populations in neighbouring regions. The genetic population structure of S. salar occupying five chalk streams was explored using 16 microsatellite loci. The analysis provides evidence of the genetic distinctiveness of chalk-stream S. salar in southern England, in comparison with populations from non-chalk regions elsewhere in western Europe. Little genetic differentiation exists between the chalk-stream populations and a pattern of isolation by distance was evident. Furthermore, evidence of temporal stability of S. salar populations across the five chalk streams was found. This work provides new insights into the temporal stability and lack of genetic population sub-structuring within a unique component of the species range of S. salar.

Under what circumstances does the capture and tagging of wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts affect probability of return as adults

Adult return rates for wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts captured in a rotary screw trap and tagged with coded wire (CW) tags were compared with a control group, using detections from passive integrated transponder (PIT) antennae systems over 7 years in a small chalk stream in southern England, U.K. Compared with control smolts, capture and CW-tagging of experimental smolts affected detected return rates only under certain conditions, with a decreased return probability for smolts caught and tagged following mild winter river temperature anomalies and during the night. Similarly, analysis of the experimental smolts revealed that capture and CW-tagging following mild winters decreased their probability of return as adults. There were also marginal positive effects of length at PIT-tagging as parr and length at CW-tagging as smolts, on individual probability of return as adult. The results support the hypothesis that the effect of procedures involving the capture and tagging of migrating wild S. salar smolts will vary with the circumstances under which they are performed. The implications of the findings are considered in the context of ongoing investigations to derive and report marine return rates for S. salar in support of national and international stock assessments and in developing best practice.

Does relatedness influence migratory timing and behaviour in Atlantic salmon smolts

Aggregating and moving with relatives may enable animals to increase opportunities for kin selection to occur. To gain group-living benefits, animals must coordinate their behaviour. Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, demonstrate both territoriality and schooling: the two key social behaviours performed by fish. In this investigation we compared the migratory timing and behaviour of six distinct full-sibling groups of tagged S. salar smolts with a large control sample from the same wild population. The results clearly demonstrate that the incidence of schooling and diel migratory timing is not significantly influenced by relatedness, and this adds further support to the hypothesis that S. salar smolt migration is primarily an adaptive response to environmental conditions, rather than a behaviour based solely on genetics or kin-biased behaviour. Used in conjunction with the results of two previous investigations, this is the first study to illustrate that kin discrimination among full-sibling groups of parr does not lead to kin-biased schooling in smolts. Thus, even within the same full-sibling groups, the extent of kin-biased behaviour in fish can both differ within a life history stage under varying ecological conditions and shift from one life history stage to the next.