Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis

Self-Talk in the Swimming Pool: The Effects of Self-Talk on Thought Content and Performance on Water-Polo Tasks

The present study examined the effect of instructional and motivational self-talk on the occurrence of interfering thoughts and performance on two water-polo tasks with similar characteristics performed in the same environment. Two experiments were conducted in the swimming pool, one involving a precision task (throwing a ball at target) and one involving a power task (throwing a ball for distance). In the first experiment (precision task), both self-talk groups improved their performance in comparison to the baseline measure, with participants using instructional self-talk improving more. In the second experiment (power task), only the motivational self-talk group improved its performance significantly. In both experiments the occurrence of interfering thoughts declined for both groups. The results of the study provide further support for the effectiveness of self-talk and give preliminary evidence regarding likely mechanisms through which self-talk influence performance, that is through indications that self-talk reduces thoughts not related to task execution, thus enhancing concentration to the task.

Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis.

Based on the premise that what people think influences their actions, self-talk strategies have been developed to direct and facilitate human performance. In this article, we present a meta-analytic review of the effects of self-talk interventions on task performance in sport and possible factors that may moderate the effectiveness of self-talk. A total of 32 studies yielding 62 effect sizes were included in the final meta-analytic pool. The analysis revealed a positive moderate effect size (ES = .48). The moderator analyses showed that self-talk interventions were more effective for tasks involving relatively fine, compared with relatively gross, motor demands, and for novel, compared with well-learned, tasks. Instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks than was motivational self-talk; moreover, instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks rather than gross tasks. Finally, interventions including self-talk training were more effective than those not including self-talk training. The results of this study establish the effectiveness of self-talk in sport, encourage the use of self-talk as a strategy to facilitate learning and enhance performance, and provide new research directions.

The Moderating Effects of Self-Talk Content on Self-Talk Functions

The purpose of the study was to examine whether different types of self-talk serve different functions. Twenty-one female swimming class students were initially tested on an experimental water polo precision task. After a three-day program during which participants practiced self-talk on swimming drills, they were tested again on the experimental task, using attentional and anxiety control self-talk cues. In addition, participants completed a questionnaire assessing perceived functions of self-talk, for each of the two self-talk cues that were used. Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that according to participants’ perceptions the anxiety control self-talk cue had greater impact on anxiety control than the attentional self-talk cue (p < .01), whereas effects for attention, effort, confidence, and automaticity were similar when using attentional and anxiety control cues. Furthermore, repeated measures MANOVAs for each self-talk cue revealed that both cues mostly assisted concentration to the task (p < .01). The results partially support that the use of different types of self-talk may serve different functions depending on the content of the employed cues.

Assessing cognitive interference in sport: Development of the thought occurrence questionnaire for sport

Abstract This paper outlines the development of an instrument to assess cognitive interference athletes may experience during competition. The investigation was based on an instrument developed in educational settings, namely the Thought Occurrence Questionnaire (TOQ). At the initial stage of the investigation interviews with athletes were conducted to establish items for TOQ item modification. The face validity of items was evaluated through a content analytic method. The pool of items which was selected was factor analysed. Finally, the psychometric properties of the questionnaire which emerged were evaluated through examination of convergent validity, discriminant validity, concurrent validity, and reliability. The results provide adequate psychometric support for the instrument. The modified questionnaire (Thought Occurrence Questionnaire for Sport) seems a promising tool for the investigation of the role that thoughts athletes experience during competition play in sports.

Self-Talk: It Works, but How? Development and Preliminary Validation of the Functions of Self-Talk Questionnaire

The aim of this investigation was to develop an instrument assessing the functions of self-talk (ST) in sports. Two studies were conducted for the development of the Functions of Self-Talk Questionnaire (FSTQ). In the first study, a prospective instrument was developed based on empirical evidence and a series of preliminary exploratory factor analysis. The results supported a five-dimensional 25-item solution. In the second study, the psychometric properties of the new questionnaire were tested. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the hypothesized factor structure of the FSTQ. Furthermore, reliability analyses provided further evidence regarding the psychometric integrity of the instrument. The results of the study provide preliminary evidence regarding the multidimensionality of ST functions, suggesting that ST in sports can serve to enhance attentional focus, increase confidence, regulate effort, control cognitive and emotional reactions, and trigger automatic execution. The FSTQ seems a psychometrically sound instrument that could help with enhancing our understanding regarding the use and effectiveness of ST.

A fair play intervention program in school Olympic education

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention program aimed to develop fair play behaviours in a school Olympic Education program. One hundred and twenty six, 5th-grade students from 4 elementary schools participated in this study, 66 of which were in the experimental group and 60 in the control group. The results revealed significant improvement in the reported fair play behaviours, classroom support and autonomy, orientation toward play and intrinsic motivation of the intervention group. Follow-up assessment revealed that the effects were maintained two months after the end of the program. Overall, it appears that the fair play intervention had immediate and sustained effects on students. The results suggest that programs based on sound theoretical principles can be effective in promoting students’ sociomoral development.RésuméLe propos de cette étude était d’évaluer l’efficacité d’un programme intervenant orienté au développe de comportements caractérisés comme “fair play”. Le project a été employé pendant le cours de l’ “Education Olympique”, sur des élèves de la 5ème classe (âge moyen de 11 ans) dans 4 écoles élémentaires grecques. Soixantesix élèves constituaient l’échantillon expérimental de l’enquête, ainsi soixante autres élèves constituaient l’échantillon de contrôle. Les résultats de l’étude confirment que l’intégration d’un programme “fair play” dans le programme conventionnel d’éducation conduit à l’amélioration importante du comportement des élèves, de leur soutenance en classe et leur autonomie, ainsi que de leur orientation au jeu et de leur motivation intrinsèque dans l’équipe d’intervention. La répétition de la procédure d’évaluation deux mois après la fin du programme (follow-up) a vérifié que ces résultats bénéficiaires au comportement présentent aussi de la durée. En concluant, les comportements sociaux et moraux des élèves peuvent s’améliorer, en désignant un tel programme basé sur des principes théoriques profonds.

Predicting students’ intention to smoke by theory of planned behaviour variables and parental influences across school grade levels

Differences were examined in Theory of Planned Behaviour determinants of students’ intention to smoke including parents’ attitudes towards smoking and parents’ current cigarette use among Greek students of different school grade levels. Students (N = 763) aged 10–18 years reported their attitudes towards smoking, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, self-identity and intention to smoke while their parents (N = 525) reported their attitudes towards smoking and their current cigarette use. All the TPB variables increased from lower to higher school grade level. Multi-sample path analyses showed that parents attitudes towards smoking positively predicted students’ intention to smoke only for elementary school children. Parents’ current cigarette use did not contribute significantly. Students’ attitudes, perceived behavioural control and self-identity predicted systematically intention to smoke in contrast to the subjective norm that did not contribute at all. Perceived behavioural control contributed to a higher degree in intention to smoke for senior high school students compared to the junior high school and elementary students. Self-identity contributed to a higher degree in intention to smoke for elementary compared to the junior high school students. The results of this study suggests that the determinants of smoking vary between early and late adolescence.

Self-talk and Competitive Sport Performance

The purpose of the present study was to test the effectiveness of a 10-week self-talk intervention on competitive performance in young swimmers. Participants were 41 swimmers (M age 14.59, SD = 1.58 years), whose performance was recorded on 2 competitive occasions with a 10-week interval. In-between the 2 competitions, participants in the intervention group followed a self-talk training program. The results showed that the intervention group had greater performance improvements than the control group, thus, supporting the effectiveness of the program in enhancing sport performance in a competitive environment. The findings provide directions for the development of effective self-talk interventions.

Thoughts of escape during competition: relationships with goal orientations and self-consciousness ☆

Objectives. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether and how goal orientation and self-consciousness are associated to tendencies of athletes to experience withdrawal thoughts. Method. The sample consisted of 71 volleyball players who took part in the finals of the British Universities Sport Association league. Three instruments were used: The Thought Occurrence Questionnaire for Sport, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, and the Self-Consciousness Scale. Results. Structural models revealed that task orientation was negatively related to thoughts of escape irrespective of game result (winning or losing), whereas ego orientation in a losing situation was positively related to experiencing such thoughts due to the self-focusing tendencies associated with an ego orientation. Conclusion. The present results support previous findings suggesting that high task compared to low task orientations are associated with greater cognitive stability. Furthermore, it is identified that within ego orientations factors outside the control of individuals, such as normatively based criteria, may play an important role in the cognitive processes of individuals. Finally, attention is drawn to the role of self-consciousness which seems important in explaining dysfunctional cognition experienced within an ego orientation.

Approach and avoidance coping during task performance in young men: The role of goal attainment expectancies

Abstract The present study investigated approach and avoidance coping strategies as a function of goal attainment expectancies in young men. Twenty-four male students participated in an experiment consisting of two rowing tests. After the initial test, participants were divided into two experimental groups and were assigned to conditions of attainable and unattainable goals for the final test, depending on performance in the initial test and experimental condition. Participants of the two groups reported similar goal attainment expectancies before the start of the final test; however, during the task expectancies for the attainable goal group increased, whereas those for the unattainable goal group decreased. After the conclusion of the task, participants were asked to respond with regard to coping strategies they used during the latest part of the final test, when goal attainment expectancies had been differentiated. The analysis revealed significant effects for effort increase, and mental and behavioural disengagement, whereas a non-significant but considerable effect was identified for planning. The higher goal attainment expectancies group scored higher on effort increase and planning, and lower on behavioural and mental disengagement, than the lower goal attainment expectancies group. The results of the present study are in accordance with the general theoretical assumptions of the control process theory, and more particularly highlight the importance of goal attainment expectancies as a factor influencing the employment of approach and avoidance coping strategies in achievement situations.