Yannis Theodorakis

Self-Talk in the Swimming Pool: The Effects of Self-Talk on Thought Content and Performance on Water-Polo Tasks

The present study examined the effect of instructional and motivational self-talk on the occurrence of interfering thoughts and performance on two water-polo tasks with similar characteristics performed in the same environment. Two experiments were conducted in the swimming pool, one involving a precision task (throwing a ball at target) and one involving a power task (throwing a ball for distance). In the first experiment (precision task), both self-talk groups improved their performance in comparison to the baseline measure, with participants using instructional self-talk improving more. In the second experiment (power task), only the motivational self-talk group improved its performance significantly. In both experiments the occurrence of interfering thoughts declined for both groups. The results of the study provide further support for the effectiveness of self-talk and give preliminary evidence regarding likely mechanisms through which self-talk influence performance, that is through indications that self-talk reduces thoughts not related to task execution, thus enhancing concentration to the task.

The Effectiveness of Teaching a Life Skills Program in a Sport Context

It is generally accepted that sport programs are among the most popular activities for boys and girls. Recent evidence suggests that participation in organized sport programs has increased significantly (Ewing & Seefeldt, 2002), and, for this reason, youth sport programs represent a significant socialization opportunity. It is no surprise then, that there have been recent calls asking for closer scrutiny to be paid to these programs as well as for additional energy devoted to their improvement (Danish, 2000; Larson, 2000). Although several authors have acknowledged that participation in sports may have the potential to enhance personal development (e.g., Danish, Petitpas, & Hale, 1992; Smoll & Smith, 2002), there is nothing about sport itself that is magical. Being on the field or the court does not contribute to positive youth development. It is the experience of sport that may facilitate this result. Researchers who have studied the effects of participation in sport have found both positive and negative effects (Mahoney & Stattin, 2000; Strean & Garcia Bengoechea, 2001). Mahoney and Stattin (2000) found that the structure and context of the activity was important in determining whether participation led to positive or negative outcomes. Strean and Garcia Bengoechea (2001) found that it was the individual’s experience of sport that determined whether participation was viewed as positive or negative. Therefore, it is probably not the mere participation in sport that enhances positive development but the individual’s experience in sport that may be the critical factor. For personal growth to be realized, youth sport programs must be developed with this goal in mind. We must emphasize the valuable skills and attitudes

Causal relationships of sport and exercise involvement with goal orientations, perceived competence and intrinsic motivation in physical education: A longitudinal study

Abstract Little information exists about the causal relationships of sport and exercise participation with goal orientations, perceived athletic competence and intrinsic motivation in physical education. A longitudinal study was conducted involving 882 Greek students who completed questionnaires on three occasions: 3 – 5 weeks into the academic year, 3 – 6 weeks before the end of the academic year, and 7 months later. The data were analysed using structural equation models, controlling for age. Task orientation and intrinsic motivation in physical education at the beginning of the academic year predicted sport and exercise participation 7 and 14 months later. Perceived athletic competence both at the beginning and end of the academic year predicted sport and exercise participation 7 and 14 months later, while ego orientation did not predict sport and exercise involvement at either time. Previous sport and exercise participation had positive effects on task orientation and perceived athletic competence 3 – 6 weeks before the end of the academic year and predicted all cognitive-affective constructs 7 months later. These results imply that the cultivation of task orientation, intrinsic motivation in physical education and perceived athletic competence will help to promote sport and exercise participation in adolescence.

Causal ordering of physical self-concept and exercise behavior : reciprocal effects model and the influence of physical education teachers

Does prior physical self-concept influence subsequent exercise behavior? On the basis of a large sample of physical education classes (2,786 students, 200 classes, 67 teachers) collected early (Time 1) and late (Time 2) in the school year, findings support a reciprocal effects model in which prior physical self-concept and exercise behavior both influence subsequent physical self-concept and exercise behavior. Whereas variables from the theory of planned behavior (TOPB; behavioral intentions, perceived behavioral control, exercise attitudes) also contributed to the prediction of subsequent exercise behavior, the effect of prior physical self-concept was significant for subsequent outcomes after controlling these variables, suggesting that the TOPB should be supplemented with self-concept measures. On the basis of multilevel models, there were systematic differences in these variables for students taught by different teachers that generalized over time and across different classes taught by the same teacher. Support for the reciprocal effects model was robust.

The Moderating Effects of Self-Talk Content on Self-Talk Functions

The purpose of the study was to examine whether different types of self-talk serve different functions. Twenty-one female swimming class students were initially tested on an experimental water polo precision task. After a three-day program during which participants practiced self-talk on swimming drills, they were tested again on the experimental task, using attentional and anxiety control self-talk cues. In addition, participants completed a questionnaire assessing perceived functions of self-talk, for each of the two self-talk cues that were used. Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that according to participants’ perceptions the anxiety control self-talk cue had greater impact on anxiety control than the attentional self-talk cue (p < .01), whereas effects for attention, effort, confidence, and automaticity were similar when using attentional and anxiety control cues. Furthermore, repeated measures MANOVAs for each self-talk cue revealed that both cues mostly assisted concentration to the task (p < .01). The results partially support that the use of different types of self-talk may serve different functions depending on the content of the employed cues.

Self-Talk: It Works, but How? Development and Preliminary Validation of the Functions of Self-Talk Questionnaire

The aim of this investigation was to develop an instrument assessing the functions of self-talk (ST) in sports. Two studies were conducted for the development of the Functions of Self-Talk Questionnaire (FSTQ). In the first study, a prospective instrument was developed based on empirical evidence and a series of preliminary exploratory factor analysis. The results supported a five-dimensional 25-item solution. In the second study, the psychometric properties of the new questionnaire were tested. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the hypothesized factor structure of the FSTQ. Furthermore, reliability analyses provided further evidence regarding the psychometric integrity of the instrument. The results of the study provide preliminary evidence regarding the multidimensionality of ST functions, suggesting that ST in sports can serve to enhance attentional focus, increase confidence, regulate effort, control cognitive and emotional reactions, and trigger automatic execution. The FSTQ seems a psychometrically sound instrument that could help with enhancing our understanding regarding the use and effectiveness of ST.

SELF-TALK IN A BASKETBALL-SHOOTING TASK '

This study examined the effectiveness of two different types of self-talk on the performance of a basketball-shooting task. 60 physical education and sports sciences students were organized into one control and two treatment groups which used self-talk. During the experiment, the control group performed with the general instructions, whereas the self-talk groups used the cue-words “relax” and “fast,” respectively. Analysis showed that only the participants of the self-talk group who used the word “relax” improved their performance significantly as compared to the other two groups. It appears that self-talk can positively affect performance if its content is appropriate for the task performed.

Motivational constructs in Greek physical education classes: Factor structure, gender and age effects in a nationally representative longitudinal sample

Abstract This study evaluates the construct validity of a profile of 11 motivational constructs (Task and Ego Orientation, Task‐ and Ego‐involving Climates; Intrinsic Motivation Enjoyment; Intrinsic Motivation Effort; Exercise Attitudes; Exercise Intentions; Perceived Behavioral Control; Actual Exercise Behavior; and Physical Self‐concept) appropriate for applied sport/exercise settings. A nationally representative sample of Greek students (2786, 50% males) from 200 physical education classes at different levels of schooling (29% upper primary, 36% middle, and 35% high school) completed the same battery of tests at the start and end of the school year. Despite the brevity of some of the measures (11 scales, 46 items) dictated by the large scale of the study, reliability estimates were mostly adequate (Md α = .82 at time 1, .86 at time 2).Confirmatory factor analyses of the combined set of time 1 and time 2 responses provided an excellent fit to the data (RMSEA = .034) and moderate test‐retest correlations (.37 to .64; Md = .55). Most outcomes decreased with age. Whereas boys had higher scores on most constructs, there were no gender differences for Task Orientation and Task‐involving Climate, and girls had slightly more positive attitudes toward exercise. The psychometric results and patterns of relations among constructs provide good support for the construct validity of the measures

The influence of goals, commitment, self-efficacy and self-satisfaction on motor performance

Abstract The study examined how goals combine with other factors in determining performance in a sport setting. More specifically, the effects of goal setting, commitment, self-efficacy, trait-efficacy, ability, and self-satisfaction on tennis performance were examined. Subjects (N[dbnd]48) performed four trials of a specific service task. Before the third and fourth trials subjects set personal goals. The psychological variables, self-efficacy, self-satisfaction and commitment, were also assessed prior to each trial. Results showed that ability, self-efficacy, goal setting, and goal commitment were predictors of performance at the various stages of the experiment. Analysis of two LISREL VI models (one for each trial) indicated that personal goal setting was affected by level of ability, as well as by perceived self-efficacy and satisfaction. Self-efficacy and goal commitment were a direct as well as indirect determinants of performance. Based on the findings in the proposed model, self-efficacy, goal com...

Physically Active Students' Intentions and Self-Efficacy towards Healthy Eating:

This study investigated intentions and self-efficacy of physically active university students towards healthy eating. The application of Planned Behavior theory has shown that attitudes, intention, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms play an important role in shaping peoples behavior. 96 students, who participated in physical activities, voluntarily completed the Questionnaire for the Planned Behavior Model and the Health Behavior Questionnaire. The former examines attitudes, intentions, perceived behavioral control, and the lately added attitude strength, and role identity towards the behavior factors. The latter assesses ones efficacy expectations towards healthy eating. The regression showed strong associations between the examined variables, signifying that attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and role identity could account for ones intention towards healthy eating behaviors. On the other hand, ones self-efficacy for healthy eating could be explained from the attitudes, intention, perceived behavioral control, and attitude strength held. Overall, systematic participation in physical activities appeared to be accompanied with a relatively healthier diet, while self-efficacy had a significant association with maintaining the healthy eating behaviors. Possible interpretations, limitations, and implications for health professionals are discussed.