Antti Laukkanen

Nanofibrillar cellulose hydrogel promotes three-dimensional liver cell culture

Over the recent years, various materials have been introduced as potential 3D cell culture scaffolds. These include protein extracts, peptide amphiphiles, and synthetic polymers. Hydrogel scaffolds without human or animal borne components or added bioactive components are preferred from the immunological point of view. Here we demonstrate that native nanofibrillar cellulose (NFC) hydrogels derived from the abundant plant sources provide the desired functionalities. We show 1) rheological properties that allow formation of a 3D scaffold in-situ after facile injection, 2) cellular biocompatibility without added growth factors, 3) cellular polarization, and 4) differentiation of human hepatic cell lines HepaRG and HepG2. At high shear stress, the aqueous NFC has small viscosity that supports injectability, whereas at low shear stress conditions the material is converted to an elastic gel. Due to the inherent biocompatibility without any additives, we conclude that NFC generates a feasible and sustained microenvironment for 3D cell culture for potential applications, such as drug and chemical testing, tissue engineering, and cell therapy.

Multifunctional High-Performance Biofibers Based on Wet-Extrusion of Renewable Native Cellulose Nanofibrils

Fibrous architectures are among the most abundant loadcarrying materials in nature, encompassing molecular level peptide assemblies (e.g., amyloids), supramolecular protein materials (e.g., collagen), colloidal level native cellulose nanofi brils (nanofi brillated cellulose, NFC), through to macroscale spider silk. [ 1 , 2 ] NFC, also denoted as microfi brillated cellulose (MFC), exhibits diameters in the nanometer range and lengths up to several micrometers. These nanofi brils are composed of aligned β D -(1 → 4)glucopyranose polysaccharide chains, which form native cellulose I crystals where the parallel chains are strongly intermolecularly hydrogen bonded. NFC materials can be isolated by chemical/enzymatic and homogenization treatments [ 3 , 4 ] from the cell walls of wood and plants, where they are responsible for structural strength. NFC forms a remarkable emerging class of nature-derived nanomaterials because of its extraordinary mechanical properties, combining high stiffness of up to ca. 140 GPa and expected strength in the GPa range with a lightweight character (density ca. 1.5 g mL − 1 ). These properties rank NFC at the top end of high-performance natural materials, where the stiffness of cellulose I is 2–3 times higher than that of glass fi bers (50–80 GPa) and approaches that of steel (200 GPa). Since NFC is derived from wood or plant sources, it is globally abundant and renewable, and represents a resource that does not interfere with the food chain or require petrochemical components. In addition, related nanofi brils known as bacterial cellulose can be produced biotechnologically. [ 5 ] Consequently, NFC is emerging as one of the most promising sustainable building blocks for future advanced materials. So far the main interest in NFC has been to generate strong and tough nanopapers, nanocomposites upon adding small contents to polymeric matrices, or robust foams and aerogels. [ 4 , 6–16 ]

Binding and release of drugs into and from thermosensitive poly(N-vinyl caprolactam) nanoparticles

Three model drug substances, the beta-blocking agents nadolol and propranolol and a choline-esterase inhibitor tacrine, were used in order to determine how different drug molecules affect the behavior of thermally responsive polymer nanoparticles composed of poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PVCL). Pure PVCL particles in water exist in a swollen state at room temperature, but the size of the particles decreases discontinuously when the temperature is raised above the volume phase transition temperature. At temperatures above this transition temperature, water is expelled out from the nanoscopic hydrogel particles. Light scattering studies revealed that the more hydrophobic drug substances, propranolol and tacrine, considerably swell the PVCL-microgel. The more hydrophilic drug, nadolol, decreased the transition temperature of PVCL particles, whereas the transition temperature values of pure PVCL particles and that of the added propranolol and tacrine were quite similar. Attenuated drug release results showed that the beta-blocking agents were tightly bound to the microgel, and this was more evident at higher temperatures. On the contrary, the release of tacrine across the cellulose membrane was increased when PVCL particles were present. Thus, both physical and chemical properties of the drugs clearly affected their binding to PVCL particles and the release of drugs was affected by the temperature.

Nanofibrillar cellulose films for controlled drug delivery

Nanofibrillar cellulose (NFC) (also referred to as cellulose nanofibers, nanocellulose, microfibrillated, or nanofibrillated cellulose) has gotten recent and wide attention in various research areas. Here, we report the application of nanofibrillar cellulose as a matrix-former material for long-lasting (up to three months) sustained drug delivery. Film-like matrix systems with drug loadings between 20% and 40% were produced by a filtration method. This simple production method had an entrapment efficacy>90% and offers a possibility for the film thickness adjustment as well as applicability in the incorporation of heat sensitive compounds. The films had excellent mechanical properties suitable for easy handling and shape tailoring of the drug release systems. They were characterized in terms of the internal morphology, and the physical state of the encapsulated drug. The drug release was assessed by dissolution tests, and suitable mathematical models were used to explain the releasing kinetics. The drug release was sustained for a three month period with very close to zero-order kinetics. It is assumed that the nanofibrillar cellulose film sustains the drug release by forming a tight fiber network around the incorporated drug entities. The results indicate that the nanofibrillar cellulose is a highly promising new material for sustained release drug delivery applications.

Barrier analysis of periocular drug delivery to the posterior segment

Periocular administration is a potential way of delivering drugs to their targets in posterior eye segment (vitreous, neural retina, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), choroid). Purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of the barriers in periocular drug delivery. Permeation of FITC-dextrans and oligonucleotides in the bovine sclera was assessed with and without Pluronic gel in the donor compartment. Computational model for subconjunctival drug delivery to the choroid and neural retina/vitreous was built based on clearance concept. Kinetic parameters for small hydrophilic and lipophilic drug molecules, and a macromolecule were obtained from published ex vivo and in vivo animal experiments. High negative charge field of oligonucleotides slows down their permeation in the sclera. Pluronic does not provide adequate rate control to modify posterior segment drug delivery. Theoretical calculations for subconjunctival drug administration indicated that local clearance by the blood flow and lymphatics removes most of the drug dose which is in accordance with experimental results. Calculations suggested that choroidal blood flow removes most of the drug that has reached the choroid, but this requires experimental verification. Calculations at steady state using the same subconconjunctival input rate showed that the choroidal and vitreal concentrations of the macromolecule is 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than that of small molecules. The evaluation of the roles of the barriers augments to design new drug delivery strategies for posterior segment of the eye.

Spray-dried nanofibrillar cellulose microparticles for sustained drug release.

Nanofibrillar cellulose (also referred to as cellulose nanofibers, nanocellulose, microfibrillated or nanofibrillated cellulose) has gained a lot of attention in recent years in different research areas including biomedical applications. In this study we have evaluated the applicability of nanofibrillar cellulose (NFC) as a material for the formation of matrix systems for sustained drug delivery. For that purpose, drug loaded NFC microparticles were produced by a spray drying method. The microparticles were characterized in terms of size and morphology, total drug loading, and physical state of the encapsulated drug. Drug release from the microparticles was assessed by dissolution tests, and suitable mathematical models were used to explain the drug releasing kinetics. The particles had spherical shapes with diameters of around 5 μm; the encapsulated drug was mainly in amorphous form. The controlled drug release was achieved. The drug releasing curves were fitted to a mathematical model describing the drug releasing kinetics from a spherical matrix. Different drugs had different release kinetics, which was a consequence of several factors, including different solubilities of the drugs in the chosen medium and different affinities of the drugs to the NFC. It can be concluded that NFC microparticles can sustain drug release by forming a tight fiber network and thus limit drug diffusion from the system.

Drug release characteristics of physically cross‐linked thermosensitive poly(N‐vinylcaprolactam) hydrogel particles

The effect of physical cross-linking was studied on the formation and properties of thermosensitive polymer particles of poly(N-vinylcaprolactam), PVCL, and PVCL grafted with poly(ethylene oxide) macromonomer, PVCL-graft-C(11)EO(42). Loading and release of model drugs into/from the hydrogel particles were evaluated. Thermosensitive particles were stabilized by cross-linkers, the most feasible of which was salicylic acid (SA). At 23 degrees C, below the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the thermosensitive polymers, stability of the hydrogels was poor, whereas at 37 degrees C stable hydrogel particles were formed. All the drugs and also the cross-linker (SA) were released more efficiently from the PVCL particles compared to the PVCL-graft-C(11)EO(42) particles. Drug concentration and pH affected clearly the rate and extent of drug release in physiological buffer. The higher drug release from the PVCL was based on the more open gel-like structure as opposed to PVCL-graft-C(11)EO(42) particles. Complex formation between the cross-linker and the polymers was due to the hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl groups of SA and H-bond acceptors of the PVCL. In the case of PVCL-graft-C(11)EO(42), the ethylene oxide chain provided more opportunities for H-bonding in comparison to the pure PVCL, creating more stable complexes (more tightly packed particles) leading to sustained drug release.

Miktoarm stars of poly(ethylene oxide) and poly(dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate): manipulation of micellization by temperature and light

A novel method for preparation of miktoarm stars is presented, first employing Williamson ether synthesis with protected dipentaerythritol and preformed poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) as reactants. This arm-first reaction gave, after modification, PEO macroinitiators with 4 or 6 initiation sites, which are located in the center of the main chain. The initiators were used for atom transfer radical polymerization of N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA; core-first method). Heteroarm stars were obtained with two hydrophilic PEO chains and 4 or 3 stimuli responsive PDMAEMA chains respectively. Both polymers had almost the same molecular weights. The star-shaped polymers were analyzed by NMR, size exclusion chromatography SEC, osmometry and mass spectrometry. The micellization of the polymers was investigated by light scattering, fluorescence spectroscopy and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy. At the conditions used (0.1 g/L in pH 8 buffer), PDMAEMA turns hydrophobic around 55 °C, forming micelles at higher temperatures. At low temperature, trivalent counterions like hexacyanocobaltate(III) allow additional micellization of the weak polyelectrolyte PDMAEMA, with PEO as the solubilizing agent. For this unique behavior the notion “confused micellization” is introduced, which is in analogy to schizophrenic micelles. The morphology of the aggregates depends strongly on the macromolecular architecture, giving spherical micelles for the star with 4 shorter PDMAEMA arms and vesicles for the star with 3 longer arms. The diameter of the vesicles, varying between 200 nm and 4000 nm at 10 °C, can be tuned by the cooling rate. This ionically induced micellization can then be reversed by UV-illumination, leading to disaggregation upon a photoinduced valency change of the counterion.

Spray-Dried Cellulose Nanofibers as Novel Tablet Excipient

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential of cellulose nanofibers (also referred as microfibrillated cellulose, nanocellulose, nanofibrillated, or nanofibrillar cellulose) as novel tabletting material. For this purpose, physical and mechanical properties of spray-dried cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were examined, and results were compared to those of two commercial grades of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), Avicel PH101 and Avicel PH102, which are the most commonly and widely used direct compression excipients. Chemically, MCC and CNF are almost identical, but their physical characteristics, like mechanical properties and surface-to-volume ratio, differ remarkably. The novel material was characterized with respect to bulk and tapped as well as true density, moisture content, and flow properties. Tablets made of CNF powder and its mixtures with MCC with or without paracetamol as model compound were produced by direct compression and after wet granulation. The tensile strength of the tablets made in a series of applied pressures was determined, and yield pressure values were calculated from the measurements. With CNF, both wet granulation and direct compression were successful. During tablet compression, CNF particles were less prone to permanent deformation and had less pronounced ductile characteristics. Disintegration and dissolution studies showed slightly faster drug release from direct compression tablets with CNF, while wet granulated systems did not have any significant difference.

Functionalized porous microparticles of nanofibrillated cellulose for biomimetic hierarchically structured superhydrophobic surfaces

Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC, also called microfibrillated cellulose and native cellulose nanofibers) is an attractive sustainable nanofibrillar material to template functionalities. It allows the modification of wetting properties, but so far surfaces with NFC have suffered from high adhesion of water droplets, even when the contact angles have been large. Here we show that spray-dried NFC leads to hierarchical surface roughness, closely resembling that of lotus leaves, due to the microparticles and their porosity at a considerably smaller length scale. We present the first report on superhydrophobic surfaces from NFC with contact angle hysteresis of only a few degrees upon surface modification. The shown process to achieve the hierarchies is particularly straightforward involving airbrushing of solvent-based NFC onto the surface, followed by quick drying, and a chemical modification performed either before or after the airbrushing, with essentially similar results. The NFC microparticles also enable the formation of liquid marbles. The presented method is technically feasible, as cellulose is an economic, abundant material from nature and the spraying processes are scalable. The shown approach could allow further functionalities, such as self-cleaning and water droplet manipulation.