Apostolos Tsiachristas

Effectiveness of integrated disease management for primary care chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients: results of cluster randomised trial.

Objective To investigate the long term effectiveness of integrated disease management delivered in primary care on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) compared with usual care. Design 24 month, multicentre, pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial Setting 40 general practices in the western part of the Netherlands Participants Patients with COPD according to GOLD (Global Initiative for COPD) criteria. Exclusion criteria were terminal illness, cognitive impairment, alcohol or drug misuse, and inability to fill in Dutch questionnaires. Practices were included if they were willing to create a multidisciplinary COPD team. Intervention General practitioners, practice nurses, and specialised physiotherapists in the intervention group received a two day training course on incorporating integrated disease management in practice, including early recognition of exacerbations and self management, smoking cessation, physiotherapeutic reactivation, optimal diagnosis, and drug adherence. Additionally, the course served as a network platform and collaborating healthcare providers designed an individual practice plan to integrate integrated disease management into daily practice. The control group continued usual care (based on international guidelines). Main outcome measures The primary outcome was difference in health status at 12 months, measured by the Clinical COPD Questionnaire (CCQ); quality of life, Medical Research Council dyspnoea, exacerbation related outcomes, self management, physical activity, and level of integrated care (PACIC) were also assessed as secondary outcomes. Results Of a total of 1086 patients from 40 clusters, 20 practices (554 patients) were randomly assigned to the intervention group and 20 clusters (532 patients) to the usual care group. No difference was seen between groups in the CCQ at 12 months (mean difference –0.01, 95% confidence interval –0.10 to 0.08; P=0.8). After 12 months, no differences were seen in secondary outcomes between groups, except for the PACIC domain “follow-up/coordination” (indicating improved integration of care) and proportion of physically active patients. Exacerbation rates as well as number of days in hospital did not differ between groups. After 24 months, no differences were seen in outcomes, except for the PACIC follow-up/coordination domain. Conclusion In this pragmatic study, an integrated disease management approach delivered in primary care showed no additional benefit compared with usual care, except improved level of integrated care and a self reported higher degree of daily activities. The contradictory findings to earlier positive studies could be explained by differences between interventions (provider versus patient targeted), selective reporting of positive trials, or little room for improvement in the already well developed Dutch healthcare system. Trial registration Netherlands Trial Register NTR2268.

Towards integrated care for chronic conditions: Dutch policy developments to overcome the (financial) barriers

Chronic non-communicable diseases are a major threat to population health and have a major economic impact on health care systems. Worldwide, integrated chronic care delivery systems have been developed to tackle this challenge. In the Netherlands, the recently introduced integrated payment system--the chain-DTC--is seen as the cornerstone of a policy stimulating the development of a well-functioning integrated chronic care system. The purpose of this paper is to describe the recent attempts in the Netherlands to stimulate the delivery of integrated chronic care, focusing specifically on the new integrated payment scheme and the barriers to introducing this scheme. We also highlight possible threats and identify necessary conditions to the success of the system. This paper is based on a combination of methods and sources including literature, government documents, personal communications and site visits to disease management programs (DMPs). The most important conditions for the success of the new payment system are: complete care protocols describing both general (e.g. smoking cessation, physical activity) and disease-specific chronic care modules, coverage of all components of a DMP by basic health care insurance, adequate information systems that facilitate communication between caregivers, explicit links between the quality and the price of a DMP, expansion of the amount of specialized care included in the chain-DTC, inclusion of a multi-morbidity factor in the risk equalization formula of insurers, and thorough economic evaluation of DMPs.

Exploring payment schemes used to promote integrated chronic care in Europe

The rising burden of chronic conditions has led several European countries to reform healthcare payment schemes. This paper aimed to explore the adoption and success of payment schemes that promote integration of chronic care in European countries. A literature review was used to identify European countries that employed pay-for-coordination (PFC), pay-for-performance (PFP), and bundled payment schemes. Existing evidence from the literature was supplemented with fifteen interviews with chronic care experts in these countries to obtain detailed information regarding the payment schemes, facilitators and barriers to their implementation, and their perceived success. Austria, France, England, the Netherlands, and Germany have implemented payment schemes that were specifically designed to promote the integration of chronic care. Prominent factors facilitating implementation included stakeholder cooperation, adequate financial incentives for stakeholders, and flexible task allocation among different care provider disciplines. Common barriers to implementation included misaligned incentives across stakeholders and gaming. The implemented payment schemes targeted different stakeholders (e.g. individual caregivers, multidisciplinary organizations of caregivers, regions, insurers) in different countries depending on the structure and financing of each health care system. All payment reforms appeared to have changed the structure of chronic care delivery. PFC, as it was implemented in Austria, France and Germany, was perceived to be the most successful in increasing collaboration within and across healthcare sectors, whereas PFP, as it was implemented in England and France, was perceived most successful in improving other indicators of the quality of the care process. Interviewees stated that the impact of the payment reforms on healthcare expenditures remained questionable. The success of a payment scheme depends on the details of the specific implementation in a particular country, but a combination of the schemes may overcome the barriers of each individual scheme.

The health economic impact of disease management programs for COPD: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis

BackgroundThere is insufficient evidence of the cost-effectiveness of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Disease Management (COPD-DM) programs. The aim of this review is to evaluate the economic impact of COPD-DM programs and investigate the relation between the impact on healthcare costs and health outcomes. We also investigated the impact of patient-, intervention, and study-characteristics.MethodsWe conducted a systematic literature review to identify cost-effectiveness studies of COPD-DM. Where feasible, results were pooled using random-effects meta-analysis and explorative subgroup analyses were performed.ResultsSixteen papers describing 11 studies were included (7 randomized control trials (RCT), 2 pre-post, 2 case–control). Meta-analysis showed that COPD-DM led to hospitalization savings of €1060 (95% CI: €2040 to €80) per patient per year and savings in total healthcare utilization of €898 (95% CI: €1566 to €231) (excl. operating costs). In these health economic studies small but positive results on health outcomes were found, such as the St Georges Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ) score, which decreased with 1.7 points (95% CI: 0.5-2.9). There was great variability in DM interventions-, study- and patient-characteristics. There were indications that DM showed greater savings in studies with: severe COPD patients, patients with a history of exacerbations, RCT study design, high methodological quality, few different professions involved in the program, and study setting outside Europe.ConclusionsCOPD-DM programs were found to have favourable effects on both health outcomes and costs, but there is considerable heterogeneity depending on patient-, intervention-, and study-characteristics.

Costs and effects of new professional roles: Evidence from a literature review.

One way in which governments are seeking to improve the efficiency of the health care sector is by redesigning health services to contain labour costs. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of new professional roles on a wide range of health service outcomes and costs. A systematic literature review was performed by searching in different databases for evaluation papers of new professional roles (published 1985-2013). The PRISMA checklist was used to conduct and report the systematic literature review and the EPHPP-Quality Assessment Tool to assess the quality of the studies. Forty-one studies of specialist nurses (SNs) and advanced nurse practitioners (ANPs) were selected for data extraction and analysis. The 25 SN studies evaluated most often quality of life (10 studies), clinical outcomes (8), and costs (8). Significant advantages were seen most frequently regarding health care utilization (in 3 of 3 studies), patient information (5 of 6), and patient satisfaction (4 of 6). The 16 ANP studies evaluated most often patient satisfaction (8), clinical outcomes (5), and costs (5). Significant advantages were seen most frequently regarding clinical outcomes (5 of 5), patient information (3 of 4), and patient satisfaction (5 of 8). Promoting new professional roles may help improve health care delivery and possibly contain costs. Exploring the optimal skill-mix deserves further attention from health care professionals, researchers and policy makers.

RECODE: Design and baseline results of a cluster randomized trial on cost-effectiveness of integrated COPD management in primary care

BackgroundFavorable effects of formal pulmonary rehabilitation in selected moderate to severe COPD patients are well established. Few data are available on the effects and costs of integrated disease management (IDM) programs on quality of care and health status of COPD patients in primary care, representing a much larger group of COPD patients. Therefore, the RECODE trial assesses the long-term clinical and cost-effectiveness of IDM in primary care.Methods/designRECODE is a cluster randomized trial with two years of follow-up, during which 40 clusters of primary care teams (including 1086 COPD patients) are randomized to IDM or usual care. The intervention started with a 2-day multidisciplinary course in which healthcare providers are trained as a team in essential components of effective COPD IDM in primary care. During the course, the team redesigns the care process and defines responsibilities of different caregivers. They are trained in how to use feedback on process and outcome data to guide implement guideline-driven integrated healthcare. Practice-tailored feedback reports are provided at baseline, and at 6 and 12 months. The team learns the details of an ICT program that supports recording of process and outcome measures. Afterwards, the team designs a time-contingent individual practice plan, agreeing on steps to be taken in order to integrate a COPD IDM program into daily practice. After 6 and 12 months, there is a refresher course for all teams simultaneously to enable them to learn from each other’s experience. Health status of patients at 12 months is the primary outcome, measured by the Clinical COPD Questionnaire (CCQ). Secondary outcomes include effects on quality of care, disease-specific and generic health-related quality of life, COPD exacerbations, dyspnea, costs of healthcare utilization, and productivity loss.DiscussionThis article presents the protocol and baseline results of the RECODE trial. This study will allow to evaluate whether IDM implemented in primary care can positively influence quality of life and quality of care in mild to moderate COPD patients, thereby making the benefits of multidisciplinary rehabilitation applicable to a substantial part of the COPD population.Trial registrationNetherlands Trial Register (NTR): NTR2268

Broader economic evaluation of disease management programs using multi-criteria decision analysis.

OBJECTIVES The aim of this paper is to develop a methodological framework to facilitate the application of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) for a comprehensive economic evaluation of disease management programs (DMPs). METHODS We studied previously developed frameworks for the evaluation of DMPs and different methods of MCDA and we used practical field experience in the economic evaluation of DMPs and personal discussions with stakeholders in chronic care. RESULTS The framework includes different objectives and criteria that are relevant for the evaluation of DMPs, indicators that can be used to measure how DMPs perform on these criteria, and distinguishes between the development and implementation phase of DMPs. The objectives of DMPs are categorised into a) changes in the process of care delivery, b) changes in patient lifestyle and self-management behaviour, c) changes in biomedical, physiological and clinical health outcomes, d) changes in health-related quality of life, and e) changes in final health outcomes. All relevant costs of DMPs are also included in the framework. Based on this framework we conducted a MCDA of a hypothetical DMP versus usual care. CONCLUSIONS We call for a comprehensive economic evaluation of DMPs that is not just based on a single criterion but takes into account multiple relevant criteria simultaneously. The framework we presented here is a step towards standardising such an evaluation.

Are GOLD ABCD groups better associated with health status and costs than GOLD 1234 grades? A cross-sectional study.

Aims: To investigate the association of the GOLD ABCD groups classification with costs and health-related quality of life (HR-QoL) and to compare this with the GOLD 1234 grades classification that was primarily based on lung function only. Methods: In a cross-sectional study, we selected patients diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) from electronic medical records of general practices. Multi-level analysis was used with costs (medication, primary care, healthcare, societal), disease-specific and generic HR-QoL as independent variables. Either the new or the old GOLD stages were included in the analysis together with several covariates (age, gender, living situation, co-morbidity, self-efficacy, smoking, education, employment). Results: 611 patients from 28 general practices were categorised as GOLD-A (n=333), GOLD-B (n=110), GOLD-C (n=80) and GOLD-D (n=88). Patients in the GOLD-B and GOLD-D groups had the highest prevalence of co-morbidities and the lowest level of physical activity, self-efficacy, and employment. The models with GOLD ABCD groups were more strongly related to and explained more variance in costs and in disease-specific and generic HR-QoL than the models with GOLD 1234 grades. The mean Clinical COPD Questionnaire score worsened significantly, with scores 1.04 (GOLD-B), 0.4 (GOLD-C) and 1.21 (GOLD-D) worse than for patients in GOLD-A. Healthcare costs per patient were significantly higher in GOLD-B (72%), GOLD-C (74%) and GOLD-D (131%) patients than in GOLD-A patients. Conclusions: The GOLD ABCD groups classification is more closely associated with costs and HR-QoL than the GOLD 1234 grades classification. Furthermore, patients with GOLD-C had a better HR-QoL than those with GOLD-B but the costs of the two groups did not differ.

Identifying and explaining the variability in development and implementation costs of disease management programs in the Netherlands.

BackgroundIn the Netherlands, disease management programs (DMPs) are used to treat chronic diseases. Their aim is to improve care and to control the rising expenditures related to chronic diseases. A bundled payment was introduced to facilitate the implementation of DMPs. This payment is an all-inclusive price per patient per year for a pre-specified care package. However, it is unclear to which extent the costs of developing and implementing DMPs are included in this price. Consequently, the organizations providing DMPs bear financial risk because the development and implementation (D&I) costs may be substantial. The aim of this paper is to investigate the variability in and drivers of D&I costs among 22 DMPs and highlight characteristics that impact these.MethodsThe data was analyzed using a mixed methods approach. Descriptive statistical analysis explored the variability in D&I costs as measured by a self-developed costing instrument and investigated the drivers. In addition, qualitative research, including document analysis and interviews, was conducted to explain the possible underlying reasons of cost variability.ResultsThe development costs varied from €5,891 to €274,783 and the implementation costs varied from €7,278 to €387,879 across DMPs. Personnel costs were the main component of development. Development costs were strongly correlated with the implementation costs (ρ = 0.55), development duration (ρ = 0.74), and number of FTEs dedicated DMP development. Organizations with large size and high level of care prior to the implementation of a DMP had relatively low development costs. These findings were in line with the cross-case qualitative comparison where programs with a longer history, more experienced project leadership, previously established ICT systems, and less complex patient populations had lower D&I costs.ConclusionsThere is wide variation in D&I costs of DMPs, which is driven primarily by the duration of the development phase and the staff needed to develop and implement a DMP. These drivers are influenced by the attributes of the DMP, characteristics of the target population, project leadership, and ICT involved. There are indications of economies of scale and economies of scope, which may reduce D&I costs.

Exploring the variation in implementation of a COPD disease management programme and its impact on health outcomes: a post hoc analysis of the RECODE cluster randomised trial

This study aims to (1) examine the variation in implementation of a 2-year chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) management programme called RECODE, (2) analyse the facilitators and barriers to implementation and (3) investigate the influence of this variation on health outcomes. Implementation variation among the 20 primary-care teams was measured directly using a self-developed scale and indirectly through the level of care integration as measured with the Patient Assessment of Chronic Illness Care (PACIC) and the Assessment of Chronic Illness Care (ACIC). Interviews were held to obtain detailed information regarding the facilitators and barriers to implementation. Multilevel models were used to investigate the association between variation in implementation and change in outcomes. The teams implemented, on average, eight of the 19 interventions, and the specific package of interventions varied widely. Important barriers and facilitators of implementation were (in)sufficient motivation of healthcare provider and patient, the high starting level of COPD care, the small size of the COPD population per team, the mild COPD population, practicalities of the information and communication technology (ICT) system, and hurdles in reimbursement. Level of implementation as measured with our own scale and the ACIC was not associated with health outcomes. A higher level of implementation measured with the PACIC was positively associated with improved self-management capabilities, but this association was not found for other outcomes. There was a wide variety in the implementation of RECODE, associated with barriers at individual, social, organisational and societal level. There was little association between extent of implementation and health outcomes.