Arda Alkan

Sequence-Controlled Polymers via Simultaneous Living Anionic Copolymerization of Competing Monomers.

Natural macromolecules, i.e., sequence-controlled polymers, build the basis for life. In synthetic macromolecular chemistry, reliable tools for the formation of sequence-controlled macromolecules are rare. A robust and efficient chain-growth approach based on the simultaneous living anionic polymerization of sulfonamide-activated aziridines for sequence control of up to five competing monomers resulting in gradient copolymers is presented. The simultaneous azaanionic copolymerization is monitored by real-time (1) H NMR spectroscopy for each monomer at any time during the reaction. The monomer sequence can be adjusted by the monomer reactivity, depending on the electron-withdrawing effect by the sulfonamide (nosyl-, brosyl-, tosyl-, mesyl-, busyl) groups. This method offers unique opportunities for sequence control by competing copolymerization: a step forward to well-engineered synthetic polymers with defined microstructures.

Triple-Stimuli-Responsive Ferrocene-Containing PEGs in Water and on the Surface

Triple-stimuli-responsive PEG-based materials are prepared by living anionic ring-opening copolymerization of ethylene oxide and vinyl ferrocenyl glycidyl ether and subsequent thiol-ene postpolymerization modification with cysteamine. The hydrophilicity of these materials can be tuned by three stimuli: (i) temperature (depending on the comonomer ratio), (ii) oxidation state of iron centers in the ferrocene moieties, and (iii) pH-value (through amino groups), both in aqueous solution and at the interface after covalent attachment to a glass surface. In such materials, the cloud point temperatures are adjustable in solution by changing oxidation state and/or pH. On the surface, the contact angle increases with increasing pH and temperature and after oxidation, making these smart surfaces interesting for catalytic applications. Also, their redox response can be switched by temperature and pH, making this material useful for catalysis and electrochemistry applications. Exemplarily, the temperature-dependent catalysis of the chemiluminescence of luminol (a typical blood analysis tool in forensics) was investigated with these polymers.

Water‐Soluble Metallocene‐Containing Polymers

Metallocenes are organometallic compounds with reversible redox profiles and tunable oxidation and reduction potentials, depending on the metal and substituents at the cyclopentadienyl rings. Metallocenes have been introduced in macromolecules to combine the redox-activity with polymer properties. There are many examples of such hydrophobic polymer materials, but much fewer water-soluble examples are found scattered across the polymer literature. However, in terms of drug delivery and other biological applications, water solubility is essential. For this very reason, all the synthetic routes to water-soluble metallocene containing polymers are collected and discussed here. The focus is on neutral ferrocene- and ruthenocene-containing and charged cobaltocenium-containing macromolecules (i.e., symmetrical sandwich complexes). The synthetic protocols, self-assembly behavior, and other benefits of the obtained materials are discussed.

Vinyl ferrocenyl glycidyl ether: an unprotected orthogonal ferrocene monomer for anionic and radical polymerization

The first orthogonal ferrocene monomer, vinyl ferrocenyl glycidyl ether (VfcGE), for both anionic and radical polymerization – without the need of a protection group – is presented. Anionic ring-opening copolymerization of VfcGE and ethylene oxide (EO) generates stimuli-responsive, multifunctional poly[(vinyl ferrocenyl glycidyl ether)-co-(ethylene oxide)] (P[VfcGE-co-EO]) copolymers (molecular weights of ca. 7500 g mol−1 and low molecular weight dispersities (Đ ≤ 1.14)). The amount of the equimolar ferrocenyl and vinyl groups are controlled by the comonomer ratio up to 15.4 mol% VfcGE. The pendant vinyl groups of P[VfcGE-co-EO] were post-modified with 3-mercaptopropionic acid via thiol–ene chemistry. The EO copolymers exhibit temperature-, redox-, and pH-responsive behavior in water depending on the polymers’ microstructure. Free radical polymerization of VfcGE leads to polyalkylene:(vinyl ferrocenyl glycidyl ether) with pendant epoxide side chains at each ferrocene unit. The resulting polymer was used to generate redox-responsive protein nanoparticles with bovine serum albumin (BSA) by nucleophilic ring-opening of the pendant epoxides.

Amphiphilic Ferrocene-Containing PEG Block Copolymers as Micellar Nanocarriers and Smart Surfactants

An important and usually the only function of most surfactants in heterophase systems is stabilizing one phase in another, for example, droplets or particles in water. Surfactants with additional chemical or physical handles are promising in controlling the colloidal properties by external stimuli. The redox stimulus is an attractive feature; however, to date only a few ionic redox-responsive surfactants have been reported. Herein, the first nonionic and noncytotoxic ferrocene-containing block copolymers are prepared, carrying a hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chain and multiple ferrocenes in the hydrophobic segment. These amphiphiles were studied as redox-sensitive surfactants that destabilize particles as obtained in miniemulsion polymerization. Because of the nonionic nature of such PEG-based copolymers, they can stabilize nanoparticles even after the addition of ions, whereas particles stabilized with ionic surfactants would be destabilized by the addition of salt. The redox-active surfactants were prepared by the anionic ring-opening polymerization of ferrocenyl glycidyl ether, with PEG monomethyl ether as the macroinitiator. The resultant block copolymers with molecular weights (Mn) between 3600 and 8600 g mol-1 and narrow molecular weight distributions (Mw/Mn = 1.04-1.10) were investigated via 1H nuclear magnetic resonance and diffusion ordered spectroscopy, size exclusion chromatography, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Furthermore, the block copolymers were used as building blocks for redox-responsive micelles and as redox-responsive surfactants in radical polymerization in miniemulsion to stabilize model polystyrene nanoparticles. Oxidation of iron to the ferrocenium species converted the amphiphilic block copolymers into double hydrophilic macromolecules, which led to the destabilization of the nanoparticles. This destabilization of nanoparticle dispersions may be useful for the formation of coatings and the recovery of surfactants.

N-Ferrocenylsulfonyl-2-methylaziridine: the first ferrocene monomer for the anionic (co)polymerization of aziridines

N-Ferrocenylsulfonyl-2-methylaziridine (fcMAz) is synthesized in a convenient three-step protocol from ferrocene. It represents the first aziridine-based monomer suitable for the anionic polymerization, carrying a ferrocenyl-substituent. Sulfonamide-activated aziridines can undergo (mostly living) anionic polymerization and fcMAz is also the first example of a functional sulfonamide-based aziridine monomer. It can be polymerized with different initiators to homo and copolymers (block or statistical) with adjustable molecular weights. The homopolymer is insoluble in common organic solvents, while the copolymers with other aziridines are soluble and exhibit molecular weight dispersities of 1.1–1.5. FcMAz thus broadens the scope of ferrocenyl-containing polymers and may be combined with other anionic polymerization techniques in the future.