Arnstein Aassve

Cohabitation, Marriage, and First Birth: The Interrelationship of Family Formation Events in Spain

In this paper, we investigate (1) the mutualcausal relationship between first unionformation and first childbirth, and (2) theexistence of constant unmeasured determinantsshared by these two events. We argue that thesedeterminants mainly consist of valueorientations that are heterogeneous in thepopulation. We apply event-history techniquesto retrospective survey data on Spain, allowingfor unobserved heterogeneity components whichsimultaneously affect the two processes. Ourfindings confirm the existence of a strongselection effect, which influences both unionformation and first birth. When controlling forthese shared factors, we find that the risk ofconception increases immediately at marriage,and it continues to be high during thefollowing four years. Entry into cohabitation,in contrast, produces a much smaller increasein the relative risk of conception. The effectof conception on union formation isparticularly strong during pregnancy, but itdeclines sharply after delivery.

Social age deadlines for the childbearing of women and men

BACKGROUND This study examines whether social age deadlines exist for childbearing in women and men, how they vary across countries, whether they are lower than actual biological deadlines and whether they are associated with childbearing at later ages and the availability of assisted reproduction techniques (ARTs). METHODS This study is based on the European Social Survey, Round 3 (2006–2007), which covers 25 countries. Data were gathered on social age deadlines for childbearing in women (21 909 cases) and men (21 239 cases) from samples of representative community-dwelling populations aged 15 and older. RESULTS Social age deadlines for childbearing were perceived more frequently for women than men. These deadlines are often lower than actual biological limits, and for women and men alike: 57.2% of respondents perceived a maternal social age deadline ≤40 years of age; 46.2% of the respondents perceived a paternal social age deadline ≤45 years of age. There is also considerable variability in deadlines across countries, as well as within them. At the country level, the presence of social age deadlines for the childbearing of women was negatively associated with birth rates at advanced ages and the prevalence of ART, and later deadlines were positively associated with these factors. CONCLUSIONS It is important to understand the factors that increase and limit late fertility. While biological factors condition fertility, so do social expectations. These findings provide widespread evidence across Europe that social limits exist alongside biological ones, though both sets of factors are more binding for women.

Age Norms on Leaving Home: Multilevel Evidence from the European Social Survey

Young people leave the parental home at different ages, and differences exist both between and within societies. International comparisons have emphasised the importance of institutions, in particular the welfare regime, the educational system, and the labour market, as well as of long-standing cultural differences. Here we focus on subjective age norms (‘age deadlines’) for leaving home—a key determinant of actual behaviour. We analyse the data of a unique multicountry dataset, the third round of the European Social Survey, through a series of multilevel regression models where simultaneously country, regional, and individual-level factors come into play. We find strong normative differences between countries, and significant, though lower, regional-level variation. Norms are significantly influenced by country-level ‘institutional’ factors, as well as by regional-level ‘cultural’ factors.

Childbearing and well-being: a comparative analysis of European welfare regimes

Fertility rates in contemporary Europe have reached dramatically low levels. In light of this we are interested in the extent to which childbearing events may worsen individuals’ material well-being. Using a sample of women drawn from the European Community Household Panel Survey, we make a comparison of the impact of childbearing on well-being using a welfare-regime classification. Recognizing that poverty status is a poor proxy for well-being, we also derive several measures of well-being that are multidimensional in nature. These measures are referred to as deprivation indices and avoid the poor/non-poor dichotomy. We provide descriptive statistics of poverty status and deprivations indices, as well as an analysis of a more causal nature, the latter consisting of a Difference-in-Differences estimator combined with Propensity Score Matching techniques (DD-PSM). We find that independently of how well-being is defined, childbearing events never have a positive impact on individuals’ material well-being. But our estimates are largely consistent with welfare-regime theory: women in the social-democratic welfare states suffer the least as a result of childbearing, whereas women in conservative and Mediterranean states suffer significantly more. For the liberal welfare regime the results are more mixed, and depend on the definition of well-being.

The Impact of Income and Employment Status on Leaving Home: Evidence from the Italian ECHP Sample

In this paper we investigate the role economic resources play in the decision of young Italian adults to leave the parental home. This is of particular interest given that, in Italy, young people leave home considerably later than in other European countries. We use the first two waves of the Italian sample of the European Community Household Panel. We use a Heckman selectiondtype probit procedure to account for left censoring and unobserved heterogeneity. We find that economic circumstances are important. In particular, we find personal income resources, as well as parental income levels, to be crucial in leaving home. Our results suggest that stable employment is an important prerequisite for men to start their own household. For women, on the other hand, finding a partner seems to the most important factor in becoming independent of their parents. Copyright Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2001.

The impact of economic resources on premarital childbearing and subsequent marriage among young American women.

This paper extends previous work on premarital childbearing by modeling both the entry rates and the exit rates of unwed motherhood among young American women. In particular, I investigate the impact of economic resources on the likelihood of experiencing a premarital birth and then of subsequent marriage. Using a multiple-destination, multiple-spell hazard regression model and a microsimulation analysis, I analyze the accumulating effects of various economic variables. The results show that the economic resources are indeed important both for premarital childbearing and for subsequent marriage. However, the simulations show that large changes in these economic variables do not necessarily translate into large changes in nonmarital childbearing.

Desperate Housework Relative Resources, Time Availability, Economic Dependency, and Gender Ideology Across Europe

This article investigates cross-national patterns in the gender division of housework in coresident couples. By using Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) data, we assess four key hypotheses proposed in the literature: namely, the relative resources approach (the partner who earns less does more housework), the time availability perspective (the partner who spends less time doing paid work does more housework), the economic dependency model (the partner who contributes proportionally less to the household income does more housework), and the gender ideology perspective (the beliefs on gender roles influence housework sharing in a couple), thereby verifying the presence of gender display. Our results reaffirm the significance of gender ideology, though with important differences across countries. Time availability and relative resources matter in the most egalitarian countries, whereas economic dependency matters in countries where partners contribute more unevenly to the household income.

The highest fertility in Europe: for how long? The analysis of fertility change in Albania based on individual data

Albanias demographic changes have sparked considerable interest in recent years. Much of this attention has arisen due to a general lack of knowledge and unexpected demographic behaviour of the Albanian populations. The country has experienced a high level of life expectancy and relatively high levels of fertility in the recent years. While previous research gives some answers to developing trends and patterns of mortality and fertility change not much is known about the demographic behaviour of Albanians. Though Falkingham and Gjonca (2001) using census data provide useful insights into the fertility transition in Albania from 1950 to 1990 very little is known about fertility behaviour neither during the communist period nor during the nineties. From being one of the most isolated countries of the world Albania has embarked on a remarkable transition which involves dramatic political and economic change. The new and emerging situation is bound to have profound impact on society and the behaviour of individuals within it. Using the Albanian Living Standard and Measurement Survey (ALSMS) surveyed in 2002 we analyse fertility behaviour in terms of the quantum and tempo effects during the period following the collapse of the communist era. We use appropriate survival analysis techniques such as non-parametric Kaplan-Meier (KM) estimation and semiparametric Cox regression. The results on one side support the evidence we know so far on Albania that the reduction of fertility was mainly due to the improvements in the social agenda with particular emphasis on female education as well as the improvement in child mortality. The results also reveal that 1990s saw some strong period effects which mainly affected the higher parities. The persistence of traditional norms and values continue to affect the family formation in Albania while the changes in the social and economic circumstances determine the outcome of childbearing. This paper shows again that similar to its mortality pattern the fertility behaviour of Albanians are affected by both the south European patterns of family formation and the socio-economic changes that occurred in Eastern European countries. (authors)This paper demonstrates the importance of improving access to and equity in the provision of essential services such as education and health for enhancing human development. A major constraint to accelerating and sustaining economic growth in South Africa is the shortage of skilled human resources. Human capital formation (through appropriate education, training and health) is vital for growth. However, for sustained growth to reduce poverty and unemployment, human capital of a ‘higher order’ than the system is currently producing, in both quantitative and qualitative terms, must be generated. The paper reviews progress in the education and health sectors and identifies the challenges. It stresses the need for policy makers to recognise the link between education and health outcomes and the provision of clean water, adequate sanitation, cheap and accessible transport and effective nutrition programmes. Addressing only the education and health services is unlikely to lead to optimal outcomes in these sectors.

Psychological Distress of Marital and Cohabitation Breakups

Using data from a large survey, the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS), this paper explores the extent to which marital and cohabiting unions differ with respect to the short-term effects of union dissolution on mental health. We compare married individuals who divorced or separated with cohabitors whose first union ended and test the hypothesis that married individuals experience larger negative effects. Results show that initial differences are not statistically significant once the presence of children is controlled for, suggesting that the presence of children is a particularly significant source of increased psychological distress in union dissolutions. However, parenthood does not explain serious psychological distress, which appears to be associated with enduring traits (the personality trait neuroticism).

Trust and Fertility Dynamics

We argue that the divergence in fertility trends in advanced societies is influenced by the interaction of long-standing differences in generalized trust with theincreasein women’s educational attainment. Our argument builds on the idea that trust enhances individuals’ and couples’ willingness to outsource childcare to outside their extended family. This becomes critically important as women’s increased education leads to greater demand for combining work and family life. We test our hypothesis using data from the World Values Survey and European Values Study on 36 industrialized countries between the years 1981 and 2009. Multilevel statistical analyses reveal that the interaction between national-level generalized trust and cohort-level women’s education is positively associated with completed fertility. As education among women expands, high levels of generalized trust moderate fertility decline.