Arthur D. Fisk

Concurrent Automatic and Controlled Visual Search: Can Processing Occur Without Resource Cost?

Can visual search tasks be combined without cost? To answer this question we had subjects search for one target character in a series of 12 rapidly presented frames. The type of processing, controlled or automatic, was manipulated by requiring search for variably mapped (VM) or consistently mapped (CM) target and distractor sets. Conditions included VM-only search (controlled processing), CM-only search (automatic processing), and simultaneous CM/VM search. Joint automatic and controlled search with emphasis on the controlled search task produced no loss of detection sensitivity in either task but did produce a large criterion shift in the automatic search task. Without instructional emphasis on the controlled search task, controlled search deteriorated. Subjects also showed a tendency to waste controlled processing resources when performing an automatic process. Automatic processing became less resource demanding with practice. However, controlled processing was always sensitive to resource reductions. The results show that subjects can sometimes perform dual search tasks without noticeable deficit when one of the tasks is automatic. The implications of these results are discussed.

Degree of consistent training: Improvements in search performance and automatic process development

Previous research has shown substantial improvements in detection performance when subjects consistently detect a subset of stimuli. In contrast, in conditions in which stimuli appear as both targets and distractors, there is little performance improvement with practice. The present experiments examine how varying degrees of consistency determine the improvement of detection accuracy with extended practice. The degree of consistency was varied by manipulating the frequency with which a letter was a distractor while holding the number of occurrences as a target constant. The experiments utilized a multiple-frame target-detection search paradigm in which subjects were to detect single-letter targets in a series of rapidly presented letters on four channels. Experiments showed that detection performance improvement with practice was a monotonic function of the degree of consistency, decreasing to zero as the target-to-distractor ratio increased from 10:0 to 10:20. As consistency decreased, detection performance asymptoted earlier and at a lower level. A dual-task experiment examined subjects’ ability to perform the previously trained search task as a secondary task. Results showed that the previous targetto-distractor consistency had a marked effect on resource sensitivity of the detection task. The general issues of consistency in the development of skilled performance and in the development of automatic processing are discussed.

Category and Word Search: Generalizing Search Principles to Complex Processing.

This research examines how the major phenomena of visual search for single characters generalize to word search and word-category search. Experiment 1 examined word and category visual search when the target and distractor sets had a varied mapping (VM) across trials. Reaction time was a linear function of the number of comparisons with a positive slope of 48 msec per word, 92 msec per category. The VM reaction time data indicated a self-terminating comparison process, and there was little or no improvement with practice. Experiment 2 examined search with a consistent mapping (CM) between targets and distractors. Category search slope dropped to 2 msec, and the function became nonlinear. Word search slope dropped to 18 msec, but the function became nonlinear. Word search slope dropped to 18 msec, but the function was still linear. Experiment 3 examined category detection carried out concurrently with serial recall of digits, allowing assessment of search performance under high workload. High workload caused a severe performance reduction in VM category search, and this decrement did not decrease with practice. High workload reduced initial performance in CM category search, but this decrement was eliminated with practice. The present category search results are similar to previous letter search results. Four principles of search are discussed in the context of a theory of automatic/control processing.

Automatic category search and its transfer.

Experiments examined practice and transfer effects in consistently mapped (CM) and variably mapped (VM) semantic search. Experiment 1a examined improvements in reaction time in detecting words from a category as a function of the number of exemplars (4-12) in the category. All CM conditions showed improvement, but there was no significant effect of the number of exemplars. Experiment 1b examined the extent to which training on a subset of exemplars transferred to untrained members of the category. Results showed substantial positive transfer (60%-92%) to untrained exemplars from the trained category. The transfer was better if there were more exemplars in the training set. Experiment 2a showed practice reduced resource sensitivity in CM category search but did not benefit VM category search. Experiment 2b showed that under high workload, untrained exemplars of the trained CM category were detected when first presented to exhibit substantial positive transfer (70%). We conclude that many of the practice effects observed for CM category search take place at either the category level or the category feature level. We suggest that practice results in context activation of the category node or category features. This context activation hypothesis is evaluated with respect to major phenomena relating to automatic and controlled processing.

Control and Automatic Processing During Tasks Requiring Sustained Attention: A New Approach to Vigilance

Vigilance decrements are interpreted within a two-process (automatic/control) theory of human information processing, and the theoretical components of the normal vigilance curve are discussed in relation to type of processing and amount of practice. Two experiments were conducted showing significant vigilance decrements when subjects utilized effortful control processing; the normal decrement was not observed when effortless automatic processing was possible. Maximum vigilance decrements occur when subjects must continually and redundantly allocate control-processing resources. Results disconfirm the habituation hypothesis. It is concluded that structuring a task such that there is a consistent relationship between signals and noise will reduce vigilance problems. System design implications suggest that tasks should be structured to minimize continuous and repetitive control processing. Methods for developing vigilance-decrement-resistant automatic processing are discussed.

Attention Theory and Mechanisms for Skilled Performance.

Current attentional research and theory are related to the development of skilled performance. Emphasis is given to how performance changes with practice. Dual process attention theory is reviewed examining the distinctions between automatic and controlled processing. The changing interactions between automatic and controlled processing in the development of skill are discussed. It is proposed that consistent practice produces automatic productions which perform consistent transformations in a heterarchial system. Automatic productions are proposed to: be modular; show high transfer; become resource free; not be under direct control, and be fast, accurate, and coordinated. Controlled processing is assumed to develop automatic processing, maintain strategy and time varying information, and perform problem solving activities. Perceptual data, some motor data, and several motor performance examples are presented to illustrate automatic/controlled processing effects. The relationship to current theories of motor skill is discussed. New research paradigms suggested by the current approach are discussed.

Aging and Skilled Performance : Advances in Theory and Applications

Contents: Preface. A.D. Fisk, A. Kirlik, Practical Relevance and Age-Related Research: Can Theory Advance Without Application? D.L. Fisher, State Models of Paired Associate Learning: The General Acquisition, Decrement, and Training Hypotheses. N. Walker, D.A. Philbin,C. Spruell, The Use of Signal Detection Theory in Research on Age-Related Differences in Movement Control. R.J. Jagacinski, Control Theoretic Approaches to Age-Related Differences in Skilled Performance. A.F. Kramer, J.L. Larish, Aging and Dual-Task Performance. F.I.M. Craik, L.L. Jacoby, Aging and Memory: Implications for Skilled Performance. P.L. Ackerman, Intelligence as Process and Knowledge: An Integration for Adult Development and Application. M.C. Detweiler, S.M. Hess, R.D. Ellis, The Effects of Display Layout on Keeping Track of Visual Spatial Information. W.A. Rogers, Assessing Age-Related Differences in the Long-Term Retention of Skills. S.J. Czaja, Aging and the Acquisition of Computer Skills. N. Charness, C. Kelley, E. Bosman, M. Mottram, Cognitive Theory and Word Processing Training: When Prediction Fails. R.W. Morrell, K.V. Echt, Instructional Design for Older Computer Users: The Influence of Cognitive Factors.

Measuring Skill Acquisition and Retention with an ATM Simulator: The Need for Age-Specific Training

The present study focused on the type of information presented during training and its effects on initial and retention performance of older and younger adults interacting with computerized, new technology. The effects of emphasizing concepts versus actions during training on performance immediately after training and after a 1-month retention interval were examined. Younger and older adults completed either action or concept training for operating a virtual automatic teller machine (ATM). Overall, action training was associated with faster and more accurate performance immediately after training and better retention performance for older adults. For older adults, value of type of training interacted with type of task component. These findings are applicable to the development of age-specific training materials for computerized tasks.

Automatic and controlled processing theory and its applications to human factors problems

Publisher Summary This chapter presents a theoretical and empirical perspective on human information processing that offers a theoretical framework important to human factors. This framework allows quantification, prediction, and interpretation of a broad range of human performance. Only a certain kind of practice can produce a skilled performer. The future directions for research on automatic/controlled processing will be aimed at more precisely defining the concepts of automatic and controlled processing. This will be accomplished by developing and testing precise mathematical models, further laboratory examinations of the parameters of automatic/controlled processing, continued work to determine the basic underlying principles of individual differences in learning a skill and knowledge acquisition tasks, and a pragmatic approach to the application of principles derived from automatic/processing theory.

A methodological assessment and evaluation of dual-task paradigms

This article outlines three major assumptions often implicitly made in dual-task experiments conducted to assess attentional capacity requirements of memorial processes. These assumptions are shown to be incorrect. Three criteria which should be met in dual-task experiments that draw inferences from secondary task decrements are proposed: (1) there should be resource trade-off with the secondary task sensitive to the resource demands of the primary task; (2) there should be equivalence of single and dual primary task performance; and (3) the secondary task must remain resource sensitive throughout the experiment. An experiment was carried out in which the primary and secondary tasks were designed according to these criteria. The results demonstrate that when the criteria are met then secondary task performance can be predictive of primary task difficulty: however, the experiment also highlights the fact that a simple assessment of capacity will not predict total task performance.