Arthur M. Agnello

Attraction of the invasive halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) to traps baited with semiochemical stimuli across the United States

ABSTRACT A recent identification of the two-component aggregation pheromone of the invasive stink bug species, Halyomorpha halys (Stål), in association with a synergist, has greatly improved the ability to accurately monitor the seasonal abundance and distribution of this destructive pest. We evaluated the attraction of H. halys to black pyramid traps baited with lures containing the pheromone alone, the synergist methyl (2E,4E,6Z)-decatrienoate (MDT) alone, and the two lures in combination. Traps were deployed around areas of agricultural production including fruit orchards, vegetables, ornamentals, or row crops in Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia from mid-April to mid-October, 2012 and 2013. We confirmed that H. halys adults and nymphs are attracted to the aggregation pheromone season long, but that attraction is significantly increased with the addition of the synergist MDT. H. halys adults were detected in April with peak captures of overwintering adults in mid- to late May. The largest adult captures were late in the summer, typically in early September. Nymphal captures began in late May and continued season long. Total captures declined rapidly in autumn and ceased by mid-October. Captures were greatest at locations in the Eastern Inland region, followed by those in the Eastern Coastal Plain and Pacific Northwest. Importantly, regardless of location in the United States, all mobile life stages of H. halys consistently responded to the combination of H. halys aggregation pheromone and the synergist throughout the entire season, suggesting that these stimuli will be useful tools to monitor for H. halys in managed systems.

Integrated apple pest management in New York State using predatory mites and selective pesticides

A 3-year demonstration study was conducted in four western New York apple orchards to evaluate current approaches of sustainable pest management in representative commercial orchards. Pests that could be tolerated were regulated by natural antagonists, including predatory mites that were introduced to supplement endemic populations, while those with lower tolerance levels were managed with a schedule of selective pesticides, e.g., insect growth regulators and horticultural mineral oil. Pesticide application decisions (timing and materials) were made on the basis of current state extension guidelines, which involved a combination of protectant and threshold-based sprays determined through timely scouting and sampling procedures. Only non-toxic or minimally toxic pesticides to the principal mite and aphid predators were applied in the orchards. By the third season, effective conservation biological control of European red mite was achieved in all orchards, and fruit quality at harvest was equal or superior to that in comparison blocks managed using the growers’ conventional practices.

Effectiveness of Odor-Baited Trap Trees for Plum Curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Monitoring in Commercial Apple Orchards in the Northeast

ABSTRACT The plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), is a key pest of pome and stone fruit in eastern and central North America. For effective management of this insect pest in commercial apple (Malus spp.) orchards in the northeastern United States and Canada, one of the greatest challenges has been to determine the need for and timing of insecticide applications that will protect apple fruit from injury by adults. In a 2004–2005 study, we assessed the efficacy and economic viability of a reduced-risk integrated pest management strategy involving an odor-baited trap tree approach to determine need for and timing of insecticide use against plum curculio based on appearance of fresh egg-laying scars. Evaluations took place in commercial apple orchards in seven northeastern U.S. states. More specifically, we compared the trap-tree approach with three calendar-driven whole-block sprays and with heat-unit accumulation models that predict how long insecticide should be applied to orchard trees to prevent injury by plum curculio late in the season. Trap tree plots received a whole-plot insecticide spray by the time of petal fall, and succeeding sprays (if needed) were applied to peripheral-row trees only, depending on a threshold of one fresh plum curculio egg-laying scar out of 25 fruit sampled from a single trap tree. In both years, level of plum curculio injury to fruit sampled from perimeter-row, the most interior-row trees and whole-plot injury in trap tree plots did not differ significantly from that recorded in plots subject to conventional management or in plots managed using the heat-unit accumulation approach. The amount of insecticide used in trap tree plots was reduced at least by 43% compared with plots managed with the conventional approach. Advantages and potential pitfalls of the bio-based trap tree approach to plum curculio monitoring in apple orchards are discussed.

Response of tortricid moths and non-target insects to pheromone trap color in commercial apple orchards.

Pheromone traps are a widely used tool for monitoring pest activity in commercial apple orchards. Studies were conducted to evaluate delta-style traps painted with different colors (orange, red, yellow, green, blue, and white) for capture of obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) and oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) as well as non-target muscoid flies and honeybees, Apis mellifera L. An additional study evaluated plastic, four-sided LepTrap traps of various colors in comparison with a standard delta trap for capture of obliquebanded leafroller, oriental fruit moth, tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idaeusalis (Walker), and codling moth, Cydia pomonella L. Capture of obliquebanded leafroller and oriental fruit moth was not significantly affected by trap color. Capture of non-target flies and honeybees tended to be higher in blue and white (both painted and unpainted) delta-style traps in New York apple orchards, although there was some variability in this response by orchard site. There were no differences in capture of four pest species in Pennsylvania between colored, plastic LepTrap traps and standard unpainted white delta-style traps. Given the observed differences in non-target capture, and the improved efficiencies of finding traps within tree canopies, we recommend using yellow, red, or orange delta traps for monitoring of obliquebanded leafroller, oriental fruit moth, and tufted apple bud moth.

Effect of High-Carbon Dioxide Atmospheres on Infestations of Apple Maggot (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Apples

Abstract Short-term storage regimens containing elevated atmospheres of carbon dioxide (CO2) were evaluated for their ability to disinfest newly harvested ‘McIntosh’ apples of apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh). Infested fruits containing newly laid eggs were either placed directly into the high-CO2 atmosphere at 10°C to expose this life stage, or else held first for 7 d at room temperature, to allow development to the neonate larval stage. Treatment combinations consisted of three different CO2 levels (10.6, 14.9, and 19.0% CO2) and two periods of exposure (7 and 14 d). Apple maggot eggs subjected to the treatments always exhibited some survival, which was lower for the 14-d than the 7-d exposure periods. In contrast, newly hatched larvae were less able to survive the treatments. The 7-d exposure allowed low levels of survival of this life stage, but virtually none survived the 14-d exposure period. To determine the age at which eggs become more susceptible to high-CO2 atmospheres, infested fruits containing eggs three or 5 d old were submitted to a 14-d exposure to 19.0% CO2. Survival of 3-d old eggs was similar to that of eggs exposed at an age of 1 d or less, but this dropped to near zero for 5-d old eggs, indicating an increase in susceptibility sometime during the 3–5-d age range. Fruits exposed to 19.0% CO2 for 14 d were significantly firmer than untreated fruits. No apparent browning, internal breakdown or other fruit defects were detected in any of the treatments.

Development of a knowledge-based system supporting IPM decision making in apples

Abstract A knowledge-based or expert system designed to coach the implementation of integrated pest management in apples has been developed. The system and its development are described by focusing on the system as an application program as opposed to an expert system problem. By doing so, the context of the system is shown to be of primary importance when weighing the benefits, costs and likelihood for success in developing an expert system. Carefully defining the human situation in which the expert system will act, will in large part determine the success of the expert system effort. The knowledge acquisition process departed from the conventional paradigm in that a team of experts were employed and attention was focused more on the actual problems to be solved as opposed to how one particular expert solved problems. A modular design was employed in developing the knowledge base. Each module dealt with a particular aspect of the total coaching effort and modules could share data. The modular design resulted in a knowledge base that was easier to develop and will be easier to maintain.

Relationship Between Plant Phenology and Campylomma verbasci (Hemiptera: Miridae) Damage to Apple Fruit

ABSTRACT Damage to apple (Malus domestica Borkhausen) by Campylomma verbasci (Meyer), has occurred even when effective insecticides are applied against nymphs present at the petal fall stage. However, insecticide application at pink bud prevents damage more effectively than when the same insecticides are applied at petal fall. We tested the hypothesis that most mullein bug damage occurs between bloom and petal fall by using two approaches. In the first, we caged naturally occurring nymphs on ‘Red Delicious’ limbs and restricted their possible infestation timing by applying insecticides both before cages were placed and also through the cage at various crop stages from bloom through fruit set. In a second approach, we caged Red Delicious and ‘McIntosh’ fruit clusters and introduced either small or large nymphs at various times from bloom through 3 wk after fruit set. Fruit damage on both varieties was greatest when small nymphs were introduced between bloom and petal fall; damage was uncommon from small nymphs introduced after fruit were ≈6 mm, and absent after the 13 mm size. However, damage was greater in cages into which large nymphs were introduced at 10–13 mm, than in untreated control cages. Fruit damage levels were equivalent on McIntosh and Red Delicious. We compared emergence of nymphs from McIntosh shoots with adjacent plantings of other, more susceptible cultivars by forcing hatch in the laboratory from cuttings collected in late winter. Significantly more nymphs hatched from susceptible varieties than from McIntosh, suggesting possible differences in levels of oviposition.

Physical Barriers to Prevent Dogwood Borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) Infestation of Apple Burrknots

Dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris), infestation of burrknot tissue on apple dwarfing rootstocks is an increasing problem throughout the northeastern United States. One insecticide, chlorpyrifos, is currently the only efficient chemical control available for dogwood borer. Because of scrutiny of chlorpyrifos under the US EPAs Food Quality Protection Act policy and the desire to increase options available to growers, we investigated other dogwood borer control options. Barriers to dogwood borer oviposition may offer an effective, efficient physical control. We tested 4 types of barriers including white latex paint, trunk wraps of spunbonded polyethylene fabric Tyvek® HomeWrap® (E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, DE) and self-adhesive veterinary gauze, and a sprayable, nonwoven ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). These were compared with chlorpyrifos and an untreated check starting in late spring of 2006. All barriers were effective in preventing dogwood borer infestation and remained intact throughout the first growing season. The paint and EVA treatments persisted longer than other treatments. However, by March 2007, the paint treatment was beginning to fade and flake off. By May 2007 the EVA treatment was ≈ 95% (± 9.4%) intact, and trees were significantly less infested than trees in the paint treatment or an untreated check in September 2007. Whereas barriers were significantly less intact in the Tyvek and gauze treatments than in the EVA treatment in 2007, borer infestations were equivalent among treatments. EVA was the least costly of the barriers and its cost may be competitive with conventional chemical control.

Novel Barriers to Prevent Dogwood Borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) and Rodent Damage in Apple Plantings

ABSTRACT We evaluated a combination of noninsecticidal alternatives to control trunk-damaging dogwood borer, Synanthedon scitula (Harris), consisting of novel barrier technologies, used alone or in combination with mating disruption. Barrier formulations evaluated included fibrous barriers of nonwoven ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and nonfibrous barriers of rubberized paint (elastomer) used in building coatings. To examine efficacy of dogwood borer control in orchards, all barrier trials were replicated in field tests, both in combination with mating disruption and without it. Trunk inspections to determine whether mating disruption and barriers effectively reduced actual tree infestation showed pheromone disruption significantly reduced infestation compared with the untreated check, but was not as effective as trunk handgun sprays of chlorpyrifos. EVA trunk barriers were effective in preventing borer infestation compared with untreated trees. The elastomer did not differ from the check or the EVA treatment. There was no interaction between disruption and barrier treatments. Barrier field life and durability was assessed over 2 yr by comparing degradation over time due to weathering and other environmental effects including animal damage. The EVA persisted and remained more intact than the elastomer, but was in need of reapplication after 2 yr. Barriers were also screened for efficacy against voles in small-plot trials in nonorchard locations with known high vole pressure; they were tested either alone, combined with a repellent (thiram), or, in the case of the elastomer only, combined with an abrasive (sand). Only the EVA significantly lowered vole chewing damage relative to the untreated checks.

Edge Effects in the Directionally Biased Distribution of Choristoneura rosaceana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Apple Orchards

ABSTRACT Edge effect tests have been used in a number of studies on obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris), to test for evidence of mated female immigration into pheromonetreated orchards. This type of test compares obliquebanded leafroller presence or activity around the perimeter of an orchard against presence or activity in the interior. Higher numbers detected around the edges of an orchard would indicate higher levels of flight activity at the edge, a pattern that could be generated by high levels of immigration. Recent work has shown that the spatial distribution of recaptured obliquebanded leafroller adults released from a single location can be directionally biased, which could obscure the ability to detect an edge effect. To test this theory, data from an orchard study conducted in 1991 that found no significant edge effect was reanalyzed. When we accounted for the directional bias in the distribution of first-generation mated female moths, we found an edge effect with significantly more mated females captured in the edge traps than in the center or mid-interior traps. No edge effect was found when the directional bias was ignored. In addition, second-generation males and mated females both showed a significant edge effect that had not been detected in the original analysis, which had combined both first- and second-generation data.