Ashley S. MacSuga-Gage

Pre-Service Teacher Training in Classroom Management A Review of State Accreditation Policy and Teacher Preparation Programs

Effective classroom management skills are essential for teachers. Unfortunately, many teachers do not receive adequate classroom management training prior to beginning their teaching careers and feel unprepared for the demands of managing student behaviors in their classrooms. In this article, we describe (a) the number of states with state policy that requires pre-service teachers to receive instruction in evidence-based classroom management practices and (b) the extent to which teacher preparation programs provide this instruction for pre-service teachers. The results of this review indicate that although effective classroom management practices have been identified, a significant gap exists between the effective classroom management research base and requirements for teacher training. As a result, many pre-service teachers may not be prepared to effectively manage student behavior upon completion of a teacher preparation program due to a lack of exposure to classroom management content.

Examining the Effects of Teacher-Directed Opportunities to Respond on Student Outcomes: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Research indicates that increasing teacher-directed opportunities to respond (TD-OTR) positively impacts student outcomes. Prior reviews of the empirical literature focused on outcomes for students with emotional behavioral disorders or on TD-OTRs as one of many classroom-management practices; however, prior reviews did not examine effects of TD-OTRs solely within the class-wide context. For the present review, we (a) examined class-wide TD-OTR research (i.e., screened a total of 527 unique abstracts and identified, reviewed, and coded 15 empirical studies); (b) summarized the effects of class-wide TD-OTRs on student behavioral and academic outcomes, including differential impacts by modality; and (c) described the rates of TD-OTRs documented in the literature. Results are consistent with prior reviews, supporting positive behavioral and academic student outcomes when class-wide TD-OTRs are increased, and extend the literature by identifying differential outcomes by modality and describing observed and desired rates of TD-OTR delivery.

Opportunities to Respond: A Key Component of Effective Instruction.

B oth general and special education teachers face a variety of challenging student behaviors that interrupt instruction and impede learning. Teachers tend to rely on redirections and reprimands to address these student behaviors (Haydon & Musti-Rao, 2011; Madsen, Becker, & Thomas, 2001). Unfortunately, relying on consequences may contribute to a cycle of negative teacher behavior and challenging student behavior (Conroy, Sutherland, Snyder, & Marsh, 2008; Gunter, & Coutinho, 1997; Scott, Nelson, & Liaupsin, 2001), and result in a chaotic, noisy, and disorganized classroom environment. Instead, teachers should employ proactive classroom management strategies described throughout this special issue. Effective instruction is a key component of successful classroom management and includes practices that maximize the likelihood of student participation, active responding, and correct responding while minimizing errors (Scott et al., 2001). Researchers have established the connection between effective instruction and (a) increases in desired student behaviors, including classroom participation, on-task behavior, and academic performance, and (b) decreases in undesired student behaviors (e.g., calling out, walking around; Engelmann & Carnine, 1991; Gunter & Denny, 1998). One effective instructional strategy is providing high rates of opportunities to respond (OTRs; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). An OTR is an instructional strategy (e.g., asking a yes/no question) that promotes student responding (e.g., holding thumb up for ‘‘yes’’ and thumb down for ‘‘no’’). OTRs may be conceptualized in a direct-instruction model (e.g., Carnine, 1976) as part of a learning trial. A learning trial consists of a three-term, antecedent–behavior– consequence (ABC) sequence (Skinner, Fletcher, & Hennington, 1996). An example of a learning trial is when a teacher presents a spelling word on a flash card (antecedent OTR), the student recites the word aloud (behavior), and the teacher then says, ‘‘Correct answer’’ (consequence; Skinner et al., 1996). A diagram depicting the process is provided in Figure 1. As seen in Figure 1, a teacher asks a question (antecedent), a student responds (behavior), followed by teacher feedback (consequence). Although the learning trial is a useful model, OTRs can be provided across a variety of instructional approaches. More broadly, OTRs include any teacher-delivered instructional stimuli (e.g., questions, prompts, cues) that occasion various forms (e.g., verbal, gestural, or production) of student response (Ferkis, Belfiore, & Skinner, 1997).

Effective Teaching Practices: Effective Teaching Practices that Promote a Positive Classroom Environment

W ho is the most effective teacher you know? Take a moment to reflect on teachers you had when you were a student, have worked with, or have observed. Now, consider what makes (or made) that teacher effective. Although your answer may include both observable behaviors and other less tangible qualities, there is often a salient group of practices that makes a skilled teacher stand out. Effective teaching is both an art and a science. Successful teachers expertly weave together academic, behavioral, and social threads to achieve a unique classroom tapestry. Undoubtedly, one article cannot begin to cover all of the nuanced skills essential to creating an ideal classroom environment. However, research, practice, and experience have identified critical effective teaching practices when working with all students, including those with challenging behaviors. In this article, we present a framework for organizing concrete effective teaching practices and highlight specific strategies educators can use to establish and promote a positive classroom environment. In particular, we focus on three key areas of effective teaching: (a) delivering explicit and engaging academic instruction, (b) implementing empirically supported classroom management strategies, and (c) building relationships with students and their families. To assist teachers in the integration of effective teaching strategies, we (a) describe each of the three key areas of effective teaching, (b) suggest strategies to integrate these practices into teaching, and (c) provide helpful resources to support practitioners. Framework for Organizing Effective Class-Wide Teaching Practices

The Relationship Between Teachers’ Implementation of Classroom Management Practices and Student Behavior in Elementary School:

Teachers’ classroom management practices have a direct impact on their students’ probability of success. Evidence-based classroom management practices include (a) active instruction and supervision of students (i.e., teaching), (b) opportunities for students to respond, and (c) feedback to students. In this study, we examined the degree to which teachers implemented evidence-based classroom management practices and whether there was a relationship between use of those teacher behaviors and students’ time engaged in instruction and rate of disruptions. Using latent class analysis, we identified four groups of teachers from 1,242 teacher–student dyads in 65 elementary schools, with one group of teachers demonstrating very low rates of classroom management practices. We then modeled the predictive relationship of being in classrooms with low rates of classroom management practices and student engagement and disruptive behavior within a multilevel framework. Results indicate that students in classrooms with low rates of classroom management practices were statistically significantly less engaged in instruction, whereas no differences in disruptions were found. The results are discussed within the context of prior research, students with or at risk for emotional and/or behavioral disorders, and study limitations.

Increasing Teachers’ Use of Behavior-Specific Praise Using a Multitiered System for Professional Development

Successful instruction is contingent upon effective classroom management. Unfortunately, not all teachers are effective classroom managers and many require in-service professional development (PD) to increase their use of evidence-based classroom management skills. Although PD models have been developed and evaluated, many are resource-intensive. To address this, we developed a multitiered system for PD (MTS-PD) to provide increased levels of support based on need as measured by teacher behavior. We conducted two studies to examine the effect of Tiers 1 and 2 of the MTS-PD model on elementary school teachers’ use of behavior-specific praise (BSP). Study 1 examined the effect of Tier 1, a single 25-min didactic training, and Study 2 examined the effect of Tier 2, which included regular visual performance feedback delivered via email. The results of Study 1 indicated that teachers did not increase their rates of BSP to a priori defined levels of success. Study 2 found that the Tier 2 PD approach increased teachers’ BSP rates, a functional relationship was established, and the rates maintained 3 months after the Tier 2 PD. Study limitations and future directions are discussed.

Investigating the Collateral Effects of Behavior Management on Early Literacy Skills

Effective behavior management is necessary to ensure students are engaged with instruction. Students cannot learn if they are not engaged. Although the relationship between effective behavior management and positive student behavior is well established, the relationship between behavior management and increased academic achievement, including early literacy skills, is still developing. This study examined the collateral effects of high quality implementation of evidence-based behavior management strategies on early literacy growth for students considered at-risk for reading difficulties receiving targeted early intervention. Results indicate that students receiving targeted early literacy skills instruction from very good behavior managers performed statistically significantly better than students receiving instruction from poor behavior managers. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Is There an App for that? A Model to Help School-based Professionals Identify, Implement, and Evaluate Technology for Problem Behaviors

I t was the first observation of the school year. Walking into Mr. Terry’s classroom, his principal, Dr. McKnight, immediately noticed the large display of monster-like characters projected onto the Smart Board. Each character was linked to the name of a student in Mr. Terry’s class. Many of these students’ characters were attached to green circles containing positive numbers. However, some were attached to red circles containing negative numbers. Dr. McKnight was intrigued. Throughout Mr. Terry’s whole group lesson on fractions, he would periodically stop to enter data into his laptop and a message would pop up on the projection screen. ‘‘Lauren, +1 for raising your hand!’’ ‘‘Nicole, 21 for talking out of turn.’’ Dr. McKnight noted Mr. Terry’s public display of both positive and negative behavior on the observation form and circled it as a point for discussion during the postobservation debriefing scheduled for later that day. After leaving Mr. Terry’s classroom, Dr. McKnight reflected on what he had observed. Over the past 3 years Fayettville Elementary School had implemented schoolwide positive behavior supports (SWPBS) as its framework for supporting student behavior. Mr. Terry served on the team spearheading the effort to create a positive environment schoolwide for all students and staff. During the first year of implementation, the team had agreed to publicly recognize students using the ‘‘outstanding owl’’ system (i.e., tickets printed with the school’s mascot, Ollie the Owl, distributed for following schoolwide expectations such as being respectful, honest, and prepared). At the same time, the decision was made to reteach expected behavior when students engaged in inappropriate behavior rather than resorting to traditionally used reactive management practices (e.g., suspension and expulsion). Over the past year, the SWPBS team decided to focus its efforts on the classroom environment. All teachers reviewed and made a plan to individually implement classwide positive behavior supports strategies (e.g., providing behavior specific praise and increased opportunities to respond). Dr. McKnight was pleased that Mr. Terry was positively and publicly reinforcing students for expected behavior. However, at the same time, he was concerned about the negative numbers appearing on the screen for the entire class to see. Publicly posting negative behavior did not seem to align with the school’s focus on positive behavior support. During the post observation debriefing, Dr. McKnight shared his concern about the public posting of negative behavior with Mr. Terry and asked him why he selected to respond to inappropriate behavior in this way. Mr. Terry responded, ‘‘Well, I guess I didn’t really think about it that way. One of the other teachers on my team told me about a really cool, new, free app to track student behavior, so I decided to give it a shot.’’ Based on their discussion, Dr. McKnight and Mr. Terry decided to bring the application to the SWPBS team for review in order to determine whether this use of technology made sense within their school’s approach to behavior management and support. Dr. McKnight and Mr. Terry face an increasingly common dilemma in classrooms and schools nationwide: the haphazard integration of technology. It has become generally accepted that the integration of technology into all aspects of teaching and learning is not only beneficial but also necessary (Nickerson & Zodhiates, 2014). Yet, little consideration is typically directed at how that technology is selected, implemented, and evaluated (Edyburn, 2013). This haphazard approach can lead to the selection and adoption of technology for the sake of technology rather than identification of relevant technology built on a strong foundation of need. Too often, word of mouth or brief Internet searches are the sole basis for the adoption of devices and systems affecting students and teachers (Kopcha, 2010). By applying what works in a personal context (e.g., a quick Android computer software program or app search for tracking exercise) to the professional context, educators are in danger of selecting technology that is ineffective, misaligned, or incompatible with the desired outcomes and philosophies of learning and behavior management. Teachers are also presented with lists of technology solutions for implementing research-based practices, such as the table of mobile technology in Cumming (2013), but those recommendations may not align with a particular context or problem. Therefore, a systematic problemsolving process for identifying, implementing, and evaluating technology use in schools is warranted. The need for and utility of technology in education is acute, particularly with regard to facilitating PROBLEM SOLVING IN BEHAVIOR SOFTWARE USE

Positive behavioral interventions and supports in pictures: Using videos to support schoolwide implementation

ABSTRACT Teaching expectations is an essential component of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS). Creating PBIS videos is a tool for teaching expectations and other targeted skills within a schoolwide PBIS framework. In this article, we offer the why, how, when, where, and what of producing/screening PBIS videos to effectively support schoolwide prevention efforts. Because effective videos (a) demonstrate the core PBIS principles and (b) meet technical video production standards, we offer a rubric for self-evaluating your own videos considering these two key elements. To support the use of PBIS videos, we also present a sample screening schedule and a tip sheet with questions to ask before, during, and after PBIS video production.

A Road Map to Systemically Setting up a Group Contingency

Ms. Craig is a sixth-grade science teacher. Two of her 20 students receive special education services and have behavior intervention plans (BIPs). Four additional students engage in a high rate of problem behavior and score at-risk on classwide behavioral assessments. The thought of running six BIPs is daunting. In addition, a number of other students call-out during whole-group reading. While Ms. Craig has been teaching for several years, she feels as though she needs to find another way to support all of her students during wholegroup reading instruction. She reaches out to the school’s behavior specialist to develop a plan. During the meeting she learns about group contingencies. Similar to Ms. Craig, teachers report that they are capable of addressing students’ academic needs; however, many feel underprepared to prevent and address challenging behaviors in the classroom (Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). Specifically, teachers cite classroom management as one of their greatest concerns (Wei et al., 2009). Thus, there is a critical need for schools to address behavior management practices and student behavior at the classroom level (Epstein, Atkins, Cullinan, Kutash, & Weaver, 2008), particularly students with or at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Manifestations of EBD typically include challenging behaviors such as defiance, inappropriate outbursts, physical aggression, or painfully shy and withdrawn behaviors. Such issues may disrupt classroom instruction and the learning of other students. With students with disabilities being educated in general classroom settings, it is highly likely that general educators will be primarily responsible for delivering instruction to students manifesting behaviors associated with EBD. Therefore, it is imperative for all educators to know how to address challenging behaviors using research-based classroom management strategies (Farley, Torres, Wailehua, & Cook, 2012). One research-based classroom management strategy that can be implemented in any general education classroom is a group contingency. This article presents a step-by-step process for identifying and implementing a classroom-based group contingency program. To establish background information on group contingencies, we provide a rationale for implementation and an overview of each of the three group contingencies.