Nicholas A. Gage

Functional Behavioral Assessment- Based Interventions for Students with or at Risk for Emotional And/or Behavioral Disorders in School: A Hierarchical Linear Modeling Meta-Analysis

Of the myriad practices currently utilized for students with disabilities, particularly students with or at risk for emotional and/or behavioral disorder (EBD), functional behavior assessment (FBA) is a practice with an emerging solid research base. However, the FBA research base relies on single-subject design (SSD) and synthesis has relied on literature review or analyses using nonparametric effect size calculations. This study was designed to examine the omnibus effect that FBA-based interventions have on problem behaviors for students with or at risk for EBD in schools using a hierarchical linear modeling meta-analytic approach to SSD synthesis. Based on a sample of 69 FBA studies, 146 subjects, and 206 outcome graphs, results indicated that, overall, FBA-based interventions reduced problem behavior by an average of 70.5% and that the procedure was effective across all student characteristics. Differences of effectiveness were evident between functional analysis and descriptive assessment procedures. Findings of this study suggest that FBA-based interventions for students with or at risk for EBD are an effective approach for the reduction of problem behaviors.

Analysis of Effect for Single-Case Design Research

Single-case design (SCD) research is an experimental approach for analysis of an effect between an independent variable and dependent variable. Traditionally, analysis of effect for SCD has relied on visual analysis, an approach whereby a trained observer analyzes a visual display of the data. Recent advances in statistical approaches have been forwarded for SCD research in the literature to assist in the interpretation of intervention effects. This review outlines the logic of SCD and describes the varied approaches for the analysis of effect in SCD research.

School Climate and Bullying Victimization: A Latent Class Growth Model Analysis.

Researchers investigating school-level approaches for bullying prevention are beginning to discuss and target school climate as a construct that (a) may predict prevalence and (b) be an avenue for school-wide intervention efforts (i.e., increasing positive school climate). Although promising, research has not fully examined and established the social-ecological link between school climate factors and bullying/peer aggression. To address this gap, we examined the association between school climate factors and bullying victimization for 4,742 students in Grades 3-12 across 3 school years in a large, very diverse urban school district using latent class growth modeling. Across 3 different models (elementary, secondary, and transition to middle school), a 3-class model was identified, which included students at high-risk for bullying victimization. Results indicated that, for all students, respect for diversity and student differences (e.g., racial diversity) predicted within-class decreases in reports of bullying. High-risk elementary students reported that adult support in school was a significant predictor of within-class reduction of bullying, and high-risk secondary students report peer support as a significant predictor of within-class reduction of bullying.

Hierarchical Linear Modeling Meta-Analysis of Single-Subject Design Research

The identification of evidence-based practices continues to provoke issues of disagreement across multiple fields. One area of contention is the role of single-subject design (SSD) research in providing scientific evidence. The debate about SSD’s utility centers on three issues: sample size, effect size, and serial dependence. One potential method for addressing all three issues is hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) meta-analysis. This study explored the utility of HLM meta-analysis of SSD. A total of 206 functional behavior assessment–based intervention outcome graphs were aggregated to assess whether HLM meta-analysis could identify (a) an overall effect size and statistical significance for mean shift, slope, and variability; (b) how the results mapped to two additional effect size calculations; and (c) whether the procedure met SSD synthesis criteria outlined by Wolery, Busick, Reichow, and Barton.

The Relationship between School-Wide Implementation of Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports and Student Discipline Outcomes.

School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) is a systems approach to supporting the social and emotional needs of all children utilized by more than 21,000 schools across the nation. Data from numerous studies and state projects’ evaluation reports point to the impact of SWPBIS on student outcomes (office discipline referrals [ODRs], in-school suspensions [ISSs], out-of-school suspensions [OSSs]) and the possible relationship between implementation fidelity and those student outcomes. With data from 1,122 Florida schools, this study used a longitudinal design to examine the associations between the total score and 10 subscale scores on the Benchmarks of Quality (BoQ), a validated SWPBIS implementation fidelity measure, and school-level behavioral outcomes: ODRs, ISSs, and OSSs. Results of these analyses found a decreasing trend across all three behavioral outcomes, and schools having higher BoQ total scores realized lower ODRs and had corresponding fewer ISSs and OSSs. Of the 10 subscales, the Classroom was negatively and significantly associated with ODRs and OSSs, whereas the BoQ Data Entry Plan was positively and significantly associated with ODRs at initial status and across time after controlling for school-level characteristics (e.g., size, number of years of implementation). The implications of the findings for SWPBIS assessment and intervention in the classroom are discussed.

A Comparative Analysis of Language, Suspension, and Academic Performance of Students with Emotional Disturbance and Students with Learning Disabilities

This study focused on the relationship among language, behavior, cognitive ability, and academic performance constructs for school-aged students identified with educational disabilities. The authors provide a review of research findings in regard to the language and academic deficits of students with emotional disturbance (ED) and specific learning disabilities (LD). Using an extant school database and structural equation modeling, the interrelationship among the constructs were examined, finding language to be a significant predictor of cognitive ability and academic performance, but not behavior, and that no differences were evident between the disability groups except on the behavioral measure.

Academic Achievement and School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports

School-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS) is designed to improve learning environments by increasing the (a) amount of time students are in school (e.g., decreased out-of-school suspensions), (b) proportion of minutes students are engaged in instruction, and (c) level of academic engagement of students during instruction. The underlying assumption is that by improving social behavior, schools have more time to deliver effective instruction. However, to date, this assumption has not been fully investigated. The goal of this study was to explicitly examine the impact of SWPBS on school-wide academic achievement. First, a comprehensive review of the SWPBS literature was conducted to determine the impact of SWPBS on academic achievement. Then, a longitudinal state-level analysis of schools implementing SWPBS and propensity score-matched control schools was conducted to identify differential effects. Results indicated little to no relationship between SWPBS alone and school-level academic achievement. Implications, considerations, and future directions are discussed.

Writing Performance of Students with Emotional and/or Behavioral Disabilities:

Students with emotional and/or behavioral disabilities (E/BD), including students with emotional disturbance and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, receiving special education services perform significantly worse on academic performance measures than same age peers. Researchers have focused on reading and math performance while less is known about the writing performance of students with E/BD. We examined the writing performance of students with E/BD and compared their writing performance with that of students without disabilities. In addition, we examined the mediating effect of reading performance on differential writing performance for students with E/BD and typical peers. A sample of 114 students with E/BD was compared with both a full sample of 3,187 typical students and 114 students matched with the E/BD students using propensity score matching. Students were compared on their writing and reading performance on the Connecticut State Mastery Test. Results indicate that students with E/BD perform significantly worse than propensity score-matched peers in writing. Mediation analyses indicate that reading performance accounts for ~60% of the total variance of writing performance for students with E/BD. Implications and future directions for researchers are discussed.

Truancy and Zero Tolerance in High School: Does Policy Align with Practice?

High rates of student absenteeism and truancy are challenges facing many high schools. Zero tolerance policies are sometimes instituted to establish a clear understanding about expectations for acceptable and unacceptable student behavior. This case study provides a description of one high school’s effort to evaluate the effectiveness of their policy for student chronic unexcused absences. An examination of the school’s data indicated that course category, including basic skills-level and advanced placement, and earned grade were statistically significantly related to points deducted for unexcused absences. Little variation was indicated across grades based on unexcused absence groups, and truancy and grade point loss were equally distributed across all grades. The results indicated that the high school’s zero tolerance unexcused absence policy appeared to be associated with increased point loss for students already failing and receiving instruction in the lowest academic level, with the majority of the students having IEP’s and/or receiving free/reduced lunch. Recommendations and implications are discussed.

Publication bias in special education meta-analyses

Publication bias involves the disproportionate representation of studies with large and significant effects in the published research. Among other problems, publication bias results in inflated omnibus effect sizes in meta-analyses, giving the impression that interventions have stronger effects than they actually do. Although evidence suggests that publication bias exists in other fields, research has not examined the issue in special education. In this study, we examined the inclusion of gray literature, testing for publication bias, the extent to which publication bias exists, the relation of including gray literature to the presence of publication bias, and differences in effect size magnitude for gray literature and published studies among 109 meta-analyses published in special education journals. We found the following: (a) 42% of meta-analyses included gray literature, (b) 33% examined publication bias, (c) meta-analyses not including gray literature were more likely to reflect publication bias, and (d) published studies had larger effect sizes than gray literature. We discuss implications and recommendations for research and practice.