Barbara Hennemuth

Net precipitation over the Baltic Sea for one year using models and data‐based methods

Precipitation and evaporation over the Baltic Sea are calculated for a one-year period from September 1998 to August 1999 by four different tools, the two atmospheric regional models HIRLAM and REMO, the oceanographic model PROBE-Baltic in combination with the SMHI (1 × 1)◦ database and Interpolated Fields, based essentially on ship measurements. The investigated period is slightly warmer and wetter than the climatological mean. Correlation coefficients of the differently calculated latent heat fluxes vary between 0.81 (HIRLAM and REMO) and 0.56 (SMHI/PROBE-Baltic and Interpolated Fields), while the correlation coefficients between model fluxes and measured fluxes range from 0.61 and 0.78. Deviations of simulated and interpolated monthly precipitation over the Baltic Sea are less than ±5 mm in the southern Baltic and up to 20 mm near the Finnish coast for the one-year period. The methods simulate the annual cycle of precipitation and evaporation of the Baltic Proper in a similar manner with a broad maximum of net precipitation in spring and early summer and a minimum in late summer. The annual averages of net precipitation of the Baltic Proper range from 57 mm (REMO) to 262 mm (HIRLAM) and for the Baltic Sea from 96 mm (SMHI/PROBE-Baltic) to 209 mm (HIRLAM). This range is considered to give the uncertainty of present-day determination of the net precipitation over the Baltic Sea.

One year measurement and simulation of turbulent surface heat fluxes over the Baltic Sea

One of the aims of the Pilot Study of Evaporation and Precipitation in the Baltic Sea (PEP in BALTEX) is the improvement of the parameterisation of evaporation over the Baltic Sea in models. The atmospheric regional climate model REMO is used here to simulate evaporation over the Baltic Sea for one year. The turbulent surface fluxes of latent and sensible heat are determined by a bulk formula using prescribed sea surface temperature (SST) values from a coarser grid. Comparison with measurements at four coastal or island sites which can be considered to be marine sites during onshore winds turns out to be problematic: Deviations of the prescribed SST from measured SST are great at certain times and systematic due to seasonal heating or cooling of the water near coasts. A test with realistic SSTs at one site for a 5-days period strongly reduces the heat fluxes. Comparisons with measured fluxes during the periods with strongest evaporation - cold air outbreak with easterly wind in autumn - were not possible due to the specific location of the measuring sites. Three parameterisation schemes are tested in REMO and the effect of e.g. the wind speed dependence of the transfer coefficient C HN is not as great as expected from tests with artificial data. For future comparisons of regional model results with single-point measurements, measured data in rather homogeneous areas, which are representative for the gridbox area, should be taken. In inhomogeneous areas, mesoscale models may serve as a bridge between the gridbox of the regional model and the measuring point. Application of a fully coupled atmospheric-oceanographic model should improve the SST resolution both in space and time.

Towards operational determination of boundary layer height using sodar/RASS soundings and surface heat flux data

A method for the derivation of boundary layer height from measurements of sodar, RASS and sonic anemometer-thermometer data is presented. Datasets of the years 2004 and 2005 measured at the Meteorological Observatory Lindenberg (Germany) are used. The time resolution is 15 min. Special emphasis is laid on air pollution issues where mixing heights shallower than 500 m are important. A difference to the numerous methods already presented in the literature is twofold. Firstly, not only single vertical profiles of measured or derived parameters are used but also bulk information, e.g. histograms and boundary layer evolution over time intervals, is considered. Secondly, the presented method analyses sodar data and confirms or corrects the results by use of temperature profiles from RASS and by sonic surface heat flux data. The results are presented as frequency distributions for the whole period and for the four seasons, stratified by the hour of the day. The additional analysis of temperature profiles and surface heat flux is particularly helpful for the detection of stable boundary layers and increases the number of shallow boundary layers particularly in the evening. The comparison with radiosonde-derived boundary layer heights shows a good agreement, deviations are mostly due to a complicated boundary layer structure. Boundary layer depths derived after a formalism given in the German administrative regulation TA-Luft show - compared to the sodar/RASS-derived values - too many very small or partly very large values. The height range between 100 m and 300 m which is essential for pollutant dispersion issues is nearly missing. Requirements for a future operational use of the method are formulated.

Precipitation and evaporation budgets over the Baltic Proper : Observations and modelling

Precipitation and evaporation budgets over the Baltic Sea were studied in a concerted project called PEP in BALTEX (Pilot study of Evaporation and Precipitation in the Baltic Sea), combining extensive field measurements and modelling efforts. Eddy-correlation-measurements of turbulent heat flux were made on a semi-continuous basis for a 12 month period at four well-exposed coastal sites in the Baltic Proper (the main basin of the Baltic Sea). Precipitation was measured at land-based sites with standard gauges and on four merchant ships travelling between Germany and Finland with the aid of specially designed ship rain gauges (SRGs). The evaporation and precipitation regime of the Baltic Sea was modelled for a 12 month period by applying a wide range of numerical models: the operational atmospheric High Resolution Limited Area Model (HIRLAM, Swedish and Finnish versions), the German atmospheric REgional-scale MOdel, REMO, the operational German Europe Model (only precipitation), the oceanographic model PRO...