Barbara Valtancoli

Thermodynamic and structural properties of Gd(III) complexes with polyamino-polycarboxylic ligands: basic compounds for the development of MRI contrast agents

Abstract The main purpose of this review is to collect equilibrium data in aqueous solution and structural properties in the solid state for significant examples of Gd(III) complexes with both acyclic and macrocyclic polyamino-polycarboxylic ligands. The intent is to determine the ligand characteristics which contribute to the complexes’ stability. Several aspects connected with the use of similar Gd(III) complexes as contrast agents in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging are also considered.

Affinity and nuclease activity of macrocyclic polyamines and their CuII complexes.

The stability constants of Cu(II) complexes that consist of either an oxaaza macrocycle with two triamine moieties linked by dioxa chains, or two macrocyclic ligands with a polyamine chain which are connecting the 2 and 9 positions of phenanthroline, have been determined by means of potentiometric measurements. The results are compared to those reported for other ligands with a similar molecular architecture. Of the complexes that contain phenanthroline in their macrocycle, the Cu(II) ion of the complex with the smallest and most rigid macrocycle (L3) has an unsaturated coordination sphere, while in the complex with the largest macrocycle (L5) the Cu(II) ion is coordinatively almost saturated. These results are corroborated by the crystal structure of the [CuL5](ClO4)2 complex. The affinity of the ligands and the complexes towards nucleic acids was studied by measuring the changes in the melting temperature, which showed that the affinity of the macrocyclic ligands towards double-stranded DNA or RNA is generally smaller than that of their linear analogues that bear a similar charge, with a strong preference for polyA-polyU, a model for RNA. However, the complexes of two of the changed macrocyclic ligands which contain a phenanthroline unit (L4, L5) showed a distinctly larger increase in their melting temperature deltaTm with DNA (polydA-polydT), which is reversed again in favor of RNA upon metallation to the dinuclear copper complex with L5. Experiments with supercoiled plasmid DNA showed a particularly effective cleavage with a mononuclear Cu(II) complex that contains a phenanthroline unit (L6). Related ligands showed less activity towards DNA, but not so towards the biocidic bis(p-nitrophenyl)phosphate (BNPP). In both cases (with DNA and BNPP) the activity seemed to increase with decrease of coordinative saturation of the Cu(II) ion, with the exception of one particular ligand (L6). Experiments with radical scavengers in the DNA experiments showed some decrease in cleavage, which indicates the participation of redox processes.

Tuning the Activity of Zn(II) Complexes in DNA Cleavage : Clues for Design of New Efficient Metallo-Hydrolases

The hydrolytic ability toward plasmid DNA of a mononuclear and a binuclear Zn(II) complex with two macrocyclic ligands, containing respectively a phenanthroline (L1) and a dipyridine moiety (L2), was analyzed at different pH values and compared with their activity in bis( p-nitrophenyl)phosphate (BNPP) cleavage. Only the most nucleophilic species [ZnL1(OH)]+ and [Zn2L2(OH)2]2+, present in solution at alkaline pH values, are active in BNPP cleavage, and the dinuclear L2 complex is remarkably more active than the mononuclear L1 one. Circular dichroism and unwinding experiments show that both complexes interact with DNA in a nonintercalative mode. Experiments with supercoiled plasmid DNA show that both complexes can cleave DNA at neutral pH, where the L1 and L2 complexes display a similar reactivity. Conversely, the pH-dependence of their cleavage ability is remarkably different. The reactivity of the mononuclear complex, in fact, decreases with pH while that of the dinuclear one is enhanced at alkaline pH values. The efficiency of the two complexes in DNA cleavage at different pH values was elucidated by means of a quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) study on the adducts between DNA and the different complexed species present in solution.

Exploring the Binding Ability of Phenanthroline-Based Polyammonium Receptors for Anions: Hints for Design of Selective Chemosensors for Nucleotides

The synthesis of receptor 2,6,10,14,18-pentaaza[20]-21,34-phenanthrolinophane (L1), containing a pentaamine chain linking the 2,9 positions of a phenanthroline unit, is reported. The protonation features of L1 and of receptor 2,6,10,14,18,22-hexaaza[23]-24,37-phenanthrolinophane (L2) have been studied by means of potentiometric, (1)H NMR, and spectrofluorimetric measurements; this study points out that the fluorescent emission of both receptors depends on the protonation state of the polyamine chain. In fact, the receptors are emissive only at neutral or acidic pH values, where all the aliphatic amine groups are protonated. Potentiometric titrations show that L2 is able to bind selectively ATP over TTP, CTP, and GTP. This selectivity is lost in the case of L1. (1)H and (31)P NMR measurements and molecular mechanics calculations show that the phosphate chains of nucleotides give strong electrostatic and hydrogen-bonding interactions with the ammonium groups of the protonated receptors, while the nucleobases interact either via pi-stacking with phenanthroline or via hydrogen bonding with the ammonium groups. Of note, MM calculations suggest that all nucleotides interact in an inclusive fashion. In fact, in all adducts the phosphate chain is enclosed within the receptor cavities. This structural feature is confirmed by the crystal structure of the [(H(6)L2)(2)(TTP)(2)(H(2)O)(2)](4+) adduct. Fluorescence emission measurements at different pH values show that L2 is also able to ratiometrically sense ATP in a narrow pH range, thanks to emission quenching due to a photoinduced electron transfer (PET) process from an amine group of the receptor to the excited phenanthroline.

Anion Binding by Protonated Forms of the Tripodal Ligand Tren

The interaction of the protonated forms of tris(2-aminoethyl)amine (tren) with NO(3)(-), SO(4)(2-), TsO(-), PO(4)(3-), P(2)O(7)(4-), and P(3)O(10)(5-) was studied by means of potentiometric and microcalorimetric measurements in a 0.10 M NMe(4)Cl aqueous solution at 298.1 +/- 0.1 K, affording stability constants and the relevant energetic terms DeltaH degrees and TDeltaS degrees of complexation. Thermodynamic data show that these anion complexation processes are mainly controlled by electrostatic forces, although hydrogen-bond interactions and solvation effects also contribute to complex stability, leading, in some cases, to special DeltaH degrees and TDeltaS degrees contributions. The crystal structures of [H(3)L][NO(3)](3) and [H(3)L][TsO](3) evidence a preferred tridentate coordination mode of the triprotonated ligands in the solid state. Accordingly, the H(3)L(3+) receptor binds a single oxygen atom of both NO(3)(-) and TsO(-) by means of its three protonated fingers, although in the crystal structure of [H(3)L][TsO](3), one conformer displaying bidentate coordination was also found. Modeling studies performed on the [H(3)L(NO(3))](2+) complex suggested that the tridentate binding mode is the preferred one in aqueous solution, while in the gas phase, a different complex conformation in which the receptor interacts with all three oxygen atoms of NO(3)(-) is more stable.

Small aza cages as “fast proton sponges” and strong lithium binders

The design and synthesis of new compounds in order to achieve expected or new chemical properties is one of the most fascinating aspects of modern synthetic chemistry. Among the many thousands of new compounds synthesized each year, macrocyclic compounds play an important role. The ever growing interest in this very active field stems from different points of view, including selective ion recognition, transport processes, reaction catalysis, industrial applications, model systems, and others [l-17]. Numerous books on macrocyclic chemistry have been published in the last few years [18-27]. Molecular topology and the nature of donor atoms are the two most important parameters influencing the chemical properties of macrocyclic compounds. Different classes of synthetic macrocyclic compounds have been developed and, in addition to the most studied crown-ether family, the aza-crowns are the next most studied class of synthetic macrocycles [ 19,251. These compounds could be considered to be derived from crown ethers by replacing the oxygen donor atoms with softer nitrogen donor atoms. The presence of this kind of donor atom makes these compounds water soluble bases and very prone to bind transition metal ions [28,29].

Exploring the binding ability of polyammonium hosts for anionic substrates: selective size-dependent recognition of different phosphate anions by bis-macrocyclic receptors.

Binding of mono-, di-, and triphosphate, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine triphosphatase (ATP) with receptors L1-L3, composed of two [9]aneN(3) units separated by a 2,9-dimethylene-1,10-phenanthroline (L1), a 2,6-dimethylenepyridine (L2), or a 2,3-dimethylenequinoxaline (L3) spacer, has been studied by means of potentiometric titrations, (1)H and (31)P NMR measurements in aqueous solutions, and molecular modeling calculations. In the case of inorganic phosphates, the binding properties of the receptors appear to be determined by their geometrical features, in particular the distance between the two [9]aneN(3) units imposed by the spacer separating the two macrocyclic units. While L1 is able to selectively bind triphosphate over di- and monophosphate, L3 selectively coordinates the smaller monophosphate anion. Finally, L2 shows preferential binding of diphosphate. (1)H and (31)P NMR measurements show that the complexes are essentially stabilized by charge-charge and hydrogen-bonding interactions between the anion and the protonated amine groups of the macrocyclic subunits of the receptors. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the larger distance between the two macrocyclic units of L1 allows this receptor to form a larger number of hydrogen-bonding contacts with triphosphate, justifying its selectivity toward this anion. Conversely, in the case of L3, the two facing [9]aneN3 units give rise to a cleft of appropriate dimensions where the small monophosphate anion can be conveniently hosted. Considering nucleotide coordination, L1 is a better receptor for ATP and ADP than L2, thanks to the higher ability of phenanthroline to establish stabilizing π stacking and hydrophobic interactions with the adenine units of the guests.

Polyfunctional Binding of Thymidine 5'-Triphosphate with a Synthetic Polyammonium Receptor Containing Aromatic Groups. Crystal Structure of the Nucleotide-Receptor Adduct

The protonated forms of the new polyfunctional polyamine receptors L, containing two terpyridine units linked together by two diamine spacers, interact with the nucleotide thymidine 5‘-triphosphate (TTP) to form stable adducts in aqueous solution. Both solution studies and the crystal structure of the [(H4L)HTTP]·12H2O adduct show that tight association of the two partners is achieved by the formation of hydrogen bonds and salt bridges involving the ammonium groups of L and TTP phosphate oxygen atoms and multiple interactions of the nucleobase with aliphatic and aromatic groups of the ligand, mimicking the modes of interaction of TTP binding proteins.

Macrocyclic Polyamines Containing Phenanthroline Moieties – Fluorescent Chemosensors for H+ and Zn2+ Ions

The macrocyclic ligands L2 and L3, containing a triethylenetetraamine and a tetraethylenepentaamine moiety linked to the methyl groups of 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline, bind H+ and Zn2+ ions giving rise to modulation of the fluorescence emission intensity. The equilibrium constants and the enthalpy changes for ligand protonation were determined by means of pH-metric and microcalorimetric methods in 0.1 M Me4NCl solutions at 298.1±0.1 K. Also the stability constants of the Zn2+ complexes were determined under the same experimental conditions. L2 forms only mononuclear complexes, while L3 also forms dizinc(II) species. The phenanthroline group has fluorescence emission properties, but interaction with the lone pairs of benzylic nitrogen atoms produces an efficient quenching of the emission. Such a quenching effect can be avoided by deactivation of the benzylic nitrogen atoms by means of protonation or Zn2+ complexation. Hence, L2 and L3 behave as chemosensor for H+ and Zn2+, the photochemical properties of the ligands being modulated by the formation of different protonated and complexed species. In the case of L3, the fluorescence emission is also controlled by the metal to ligand molar ratio, because of the formation of an emissive binuclear complex.

Low molecular weight compounds with transition metals as free radical scavengers and novel therapeutic agents.

Molecules able to modulate the levels of endogenous free radicals, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO), are of pivotal interest for pharmacological and pharmaceutical sciences because of their potential therapeutic relevance. In fact, ROS and NO, which are normal products of cell metabolism, may play a dual beneficial/deleterious role, depending on local concentration and mode of generation. As such, they have been identified as key pathogenic factors for many inflammatory, vascular dysfunctional and degenerative disorders, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, diabetes mellitus, and ageing. Therefore, the identification and characterization of novel antioxidant/free radical scavenger molecules may expand the current therapeutic implements for the treatment and prevention of the above diseases. In this perspective, low molecular weight complexes of transition metals with organic scaffolds are viewed and investigated as promising pharmaceutical agents. These complexes take advantage of the known principles of inorganic chemistry, i.e. the ability of transition metals, Fe(II), Co(II), Mn(II) and Ru(II), to bind to and react with NO and/or ROS, to counterbalance excessive endogenous free radical generation in biological systems. Among NO scavengers, representative examples are iron complexes with dithiocarbamates or ruthenium compounds with polyamine-polycarboxylate scaffolds; on the other hand, manganese-based molecules appear effective as ROS scavengers. Of note, Mn(II)-containing molecules, currently under study as ROS scavengers, have major functional similarities to Mn-superoxide dismutase (SOD), a Mn-containing enzyme acting as potent endogenous anti-oxidant. In this article, we briefly summarize the state-of-the-art concerning the chemical and biological properties of transition metal ion complexes with low molecular weight synthetic ligands as ROS/NO scavengers provided with therapeutic effectiveness in animal models of free radical-induced diseases. A proper design of the organic scaffolds may yield metal complexes which are stable in aqueous solution in a wide range of physical and chemical conditions, thus preventing release of the metal and the related toxicity. These metal-based compounds may be viewed as a novel class of drugs helpful to reduce vascular dysfunction and oxidative tissue injury due to derangements of the endogenous generation/catabolism of NO and ROS.